TPO9-1-1原文：ColonizingtheAmericasviatheNorthwestIthaslongbeenacceptedthattheAmericaswerecolonizedbyamigrationofpeoplesfromAsia,slowlytravelingacrossalandbridgecalledBeringia(nowtheBeringStraitbetweennortheasternAsiaandAlaska)duringthelastIceAge.Thefirstwatercrafttheoryaboutthismigrationwasthataround11,000-12,000yearsagotherewasanice-corridorstretchingfromeasternBeringiatotheareasofNorthAmericasouthofthegreatnorthernglaciers.Itwasthismidcontinentalcorridorbetweentwomassiveicesheets–theLaurentidetotheeastandtheCordillerantothewest–thatenabledthesouthwardmigration.Butbeliefinthisice-corridorbegantocrumblewhenpaleoecologistGlenMacDonalddemonstratedthatsomeofthemostimportantradiocarbondatesusedtosupporttheexistenceofanice-corridorwereincorrect.Hepersuasivelyarguedthatsuchanice-corridordidnotexistuntilmuchlater,whenthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreat.Supportisgrowingforthealternativetheorythatpeopleusingwatercraft,possiblyskinboats,movedsouthwardfromBeringiaalongtheGulfofAlaskaandthensouthwardalongtheNorthwestcoastofNorthAmericapossiblyasearlyas16,000yearsago.ThisroutewouldhaveenabledhumanstoentersouthernareasoftheAmericaspriortothemeltingofthecontinentalglaciers.Untiltheearly1970s,mostarchaeologistsdidnotconsiderthecoastapossiblemigrationrouteintotheAmericasbecausegeologistsoriginallybelievedthatduringthelastIceAgetheentireNorthwestCoastwascoveredbyglacialice.IthadbeenassumedthattheiceextendedwestwardfromtheAlaskan/Canadianmountainstotheveryedgeofthecontinentalshelf,theflat,submergedpartofthecontinentthatextendsintotheocean.ThiswouldhavecreatedabarrieroficeextendingfromtheAlaskaPeninsula,throughtheGulfofAlaskaandsouthwardalongtheNorthwestCoastofnorthAmericatowhatistodaythestateofWashington.ThemostinfluentialproponentofthecoastalmigrationroutehasbeenCanadianarchaeologistKnutFladmark.Hetheorizedthatwiththeuseofwatercraft,peoplegraduallycolonizedunglaciatedrefugesandareasalongthecontinentalshelfexposedbythelowersealevel.Fladmark’shypothesisreceivedadditionalsupportformfromthefactthatthegreatestdiversityinnativeAmericanlanguagesoccursalongthewestcoastoftheAmericas,suggestingthatthisregionhasbeensettledthelongest.Morerecentgeologicstudieseddeglaciationandtheexistenceofice-areasthroughoutmajorcoastalareasofBritishColumbia,Canada,by13,000yearsago.ResearchnowindicatesthatsizableareasofsoutheasternAlaskaalongtheinnercontinentalshelfwerenotcoveredbyicetowardtheendofthelastIceAge.Onestudysuggeststhatexceptfora250-coastalareabetweensouthwesternBritishColumbiaandWashingtonState,theNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericawaslargelyoficebyapproximay16,000yearsago.Vastareasalongthecoastmayhavebeendeglaciatedbeginningaround16,000yearsago,possiblyprovidingacoastalcorridorforthemovementofnts,animals,andhumanssometimebetween13,000and14,000yearsago.Thecoastalhypothesishasgainedincreasingsupportinrecentyearsbecausetheremainslargelandanimals,suchascaribouandbrownbears,havebeenfoundinsoutheasternAlaskadatingbetween10,000and12,500yearsago.Thisisthetimeperiodinwhichmostscientistsformerlybelievedtheareatobeinhospitableforhumans.Ithasbeensuggestedthatiftheenvironmentwerecapableofsupportingbreedingpopulationsofbears,therewouldhavebeenenoughfoodresourcestosupporthumans.FladmarkandotherbelievethatthefirsthumancolonizationofAmericaoccurredbyboatalongtheNorthwestCoastduringtheverylateIceAge,possiblyasearlyas14,000yearsago.Themostrecentgeologicevidenceindicatesthatitmayhavebeenpossibleforpeopletocolonizeice-regionsalongthecontinentalshelfthatwerestillexposedbythelowersealevelbetween13,000and14,000yearsago.Thecoastalhypothesissuggestsaneconomybasedonmarinemlhunting,saltwaterfishing,sfishgathering,andtheuseofwatercraft.Becauseofthebarrieroficetotheeast,thePacificOceantothewest,andpopulatedareastothenorth,theremayhavebeenagreaterimpetusforpeopletomoveinasoutherlydirection.Paragraph1:IthaslongbeenacceptedthattheAmericaswerecolonizedbyamigrationofpeoplesfromAsia,slowlytravelingacrossalandbridgecalledBeringia(nowtheBeringStraitbetweennortheasternAsiaandAlaska)duringthelastIceAge.Thefirstwatercrafttheoryaboutthismigrationwasthataround11,000-12,000yearsagotherewasanice-corridorstretchingfromeasternBeringiatotheareasofNorthAmericasouthofthegreatnorthernglaciers.Itwasthismidcontinentalcorridorbetweentwomassiveicesheets–theLaurentidetotheeastandtheCordillerantothewest–thatenabledthesouthwardmigration.Butbeliefinthisice-corridorbegantocrumblewhenpaleoecologistGlenMacDonalddemonstratedthatsomeofthemostimportantradiocarbondatesusedtosupporttheexistenceofanice-corridorwereincorrect.Hepersuasivelyarguedthatsuchanice-corridordidnotexistuntilmuchlater,whenthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreat.Accordingtoparagraph1,thetheorythatpeoplefirstmigratedtotheAmericansbywayofanice-corridorwasseriouslycalledintoquestionbypaleoecologistGlenMacDonald'sargumentthattheoriginalmigrationoccurredmuchlaterthanhadpreviouslybeenbelievedevidencethatthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreatmuchlaterthanhadpreviouslybeenresearchshowingthattheice-corridorwasnotaslonglastingashadbeenwidelyTheword“persuasively”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningParagraph2:Supportisgrowingforthealternativetheorythatpeopleusingwatercraft,possiblyskinboats,movedsouthwardfromBeringiaalongtheGulfofAlaskaandthensouthwardalongtheNorthwestcoastofNorthAmericapossiblyasearlyas16,000yearsago.ThisroutewouldhaveenabledhumanstoentersouthernareasoftheAmericaspriortothemeltingofthecontinentalglaciers.Untiltheearly1970s,mostarchaeologistsdidnotconsiderthecoastapossiblemigrationrouteintotheAmericasbecausegeologistsoriginallybelievedthatduringthelastIceAgetheentireNorthwestCoastwascoveredbyglacialice.IthadbeenassumedthattheiceextendedwestwardfromtheAlaskan/Canadianmountainstotheveryedgeofthecontinentalshelf,theflat,submergedpartofthecontinentthatextendsintotheocean.ThiswouldhavecreatedabarrieroficeextendingfromtheAlaskaPeninsula,throughtheGulfofAlaskaandsouthwardalongtheNorthwestCoastofnorthAmericatowhatistodaythestateofWashington.Paragraph2beginsbypresentingatheoryandthengoesondiscusswhythetheorywasrapidlyacceptedbutthenpresenttheevidenceonwhichthetheorywasciteevidencethatnowshowsthatthetheoryisexinwhythetheorywasnotinitiallyconsideredThephrase“priorto”isclosestinmeaninginspiteParagraph2supportstheideathat,beforethe1970s,mostarchaeologistsheldwhichofthefollowingviewsabouttheearliestpeopletoreachtheAmericas?TheycouldnothavesaileddirectlyfromBeringiatoAlaskaandthensouthwardbecause,itwasthought,glacialicecoveredtheentirecoastalregion.Theywerenotawarethattheclimatewouldcontinue eTheywouldhavehadnointerestinmigratingsouthwardfromBeringiauntilafterthecontinentalglaciershadbeguntomelt.Paragraph3:ThemostinfluentialproponentofthecoastalmigrationroutehasbeenCanadianarchaeologistKnutFladmark.Hetheorizedthatwiththeuseofwatercraft,peoplegraduallycolonizedunglaciatedrefugesandareasalongthecontinentalshelfexposedbythelowersealevel.Fladmark’shypothesisreceivedadditionalsupportformfromthefactthatthegreatestdiversityinnativeAmericanlanguagesoccursalongthewestcoastoftheAmericas,suggestingthatthisregionhasbeensettledthelongest.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthehighlightedsentenceinthepassage?Incorrectchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaystoleaveoutessentialinformation.Becausethisregionhasbeensettledthelongest,italsodisysthegreatestdiversityinFladmark'shypothesisstatesthatthewestcoastoftheAmericashasbeensettledlongerthananyotherregion.ThefactthatthegreatestdiversityofNativeAmericanlanguagesoccursalongthewestcoastoftheAmericanslendsstrengthtoFradmark'shypothesis.AccordingtoFladmark,NativeAmericanlanguageshavesurvivedthelongestalongthewestcoastoftheAmericas.Paragraph4:Morerecentgeologicstudieseddeglaciationandtheexistenceofice-areasthroughoutmajorcoastalareasofBritishColumbia,Canada,by13,000yearsago.ResearchnowindicatesthatsizableareasofsoutheasternAlaskaalongtheinnercontinentalshelfwerenotcoveredbyicetowardtheendofthelastIceAge.Onestudysuggeststhatexceptfora250-coastalareabetweensouthwesternBritishColumbiaandWashingtonState,theNorthwestCoastofNorthAmericawaslargelyoficebyapproximay16,000yearsago.Vastareasalongthecoastmayhavebeendeglaciatedbeginningaround16,000yearsago,possiblyprovidingacoastalcorridorforthemovementofnts,animals,andhumanssometimebetween13,000and14,000yearsago.Theauthor'spurposeinparagraph4isindicatethatanumberofrecentgeologicstudiesseemtoprovidesupportforthecoastalexinwhyhumansmayhavereachedAmerica'snorthwestcoastbeforeanimalsandntsshowthatthecoastalhypothesismayexinhowpeoplefirstreachedAlaskabutitcannotexinhowpeoplereachedareaslikemodernBritishColumbiaandWashingtonStateTheword“Vast”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningParagraph5:Thecoastalhypothesishasgainedincreasingsupportinrecentyearsbecausetheremainsoflargelandanimals,suchascaribouandbrownbears,havebeenfoundinsoutheasternAlaskadatingbetween10,000and12,500yearsago.Thisisthetimeperiodinwhichmostscientistsformerlybelievedtheareatobeinhospitableforhumans.Ithasbeensuggestedthatiftheenvironmentwerecapableofsupportingbreedingpopulationsofbears,therewouldhavebeenenoughfoodresourcestosupporthumans.FladmarkandotherbelievethatthefirsthumancolonizationofAmericaoccurredbyboatalongtheNorthwestCoastduringtheverylateIceAge,possiblyasearlyas14,000yearsago.Themostrecentgeologicevidenceindicatesthatitmayhavebeenpossibleforpeopletocolonizeice-regionsalongthecontinentalshelfthatwerestillexposedbythelowersealevelbetween13,000and14,000yearsago.Accordingtoparagraph5,thediscoveryoftheremainsoflargelandanimalssupportsthecoastalhypothesisbyprovidingevidencethathumanswerechangingtheirhuntingtechniquestoadapttocoastalratherthaninlandanimalshadmigratedfromtheinlandtothecoasts,anindicationthatamidcontinentalice-corridorwasactuallyimusiblehumansprobablywouldhavebeenabletofindenoughresourcesalongthecoastalthecontinentalshelfwasstillexposedbylowersealevelsduringtheperiodwhenthesouthwardmigrationofpeoplebeganTheword“inhospitable”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningnotnotnotnotAccordingtoparagraph5,themostrecentgeologicresearchprovidessupportforafirstcolonizationofAmericadatingasfarbackasParagraph6:Thecoastalhypothesissuggestsaneconomybasedonmarinemlhunting,saltwaterfishinggathering,andtheuseofwatercraft.Becauseofthebarrieroficetotheeast,thePacificOceantothewest,andpopulatedareastothenorth,theremayhavebeenagreaterimpetusforpeopletomoveinasoutherlydirection.Theword“impetus”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningParagraph1:IthaslongbeenacceptedthattheAmericaswerecolonizedbyamigrationofpeoplesfromAsia,slowlytravelingacrossalandbridgecalledBeringia(nowtheBeringStraitbetweennortheasternAsiaandAlaska)duringthelastIceAge.■Thefirstwatercrafttheoryaboutthemigrationwasthataround11,000-12,000yearsagotherewasanice-corridorstretchingfromeasternBeringiatotheareasofNorthAmericasouthofthegreatnorthernglaciers.Itwasthemidcontinentalcorridorbetweentwomassiveicesheets-theLaurentidetothewest-thatenabledthesouthwardmigration.■Butbeliefinthisice-corridorbegantocrumblewhenpaleoecologistGlenMacDonalddemonstratedthatsomeofthemostimportantradiocarbondatesusedtosupporttheexistenceofanice-corridorwereincorrect.■Hepersuasivelyarguedthatsuchanice-corridordidnotexistuntilmuchlater,whenthecontinentalicebeganitsfinalretreat.■Lookatthefoursquares[■]thatindicatewherethefollowingsentencecouldbeaddedtotheMoreover,otherevidencesuggeststhatevenifanice-corridordidexist,itwouldhavelackedtheresourcesneededforhumancolonization.Directions:Anintroductorysentenceforabriefsummaryofthepassageisprovidedbelow.CompletethesummarybyselectingtheTHREEanswerchoicesthatexpressthemostimportantideasinthepassage.Someanswerchoicesdonotbelonginthesummarybecausetheyexpressideasthatarenotpresentedinthepassageorareminorideasinthepassage.Thisquestionisworth2points.Recentevidencefavorsarivaltothelong-standingtheorythattheAmericaswerecolonized11,000-12,000yearsagobypeoplemigratingsouthfromBeringiaalongamidcontinentalice-ThereisgrowingThereisevidenceEvidencethatanice-corridorbetweentwoicesheetsdevelopedwhenthecontinentalicefirstbegantomeltcameprimarilyfromradiocarbondating.Thereisgrowingsupportforthetheorythatmigrationtookcemuchearlier,bysea,followingacoastalroutealongAlaskaanddownthenorthwestcoast.Recentgeologicevidenceindicatesthatcontrarytowhathadbeenbelieved,substantialareasalongthecoastwereoficeasearlyas16,000yearsago.ResearchnowindicatesthatthepartsoftheinnercontinentalshelfthatremainedcoveredwithicewerecolonizedbyavarietyofearlyhumangroupswelladaptedtolivinginextremelycoldThereisevidencesuggestingthatareasalongthecoastmayhavecontainedenoughfoodresourcesbetween13,000and14,000yearsagotohavemadehumancolonizationpossible.Eventhoughthenorthernpartofthecontinentallowedforamorevariedeconomy,severalearlyhumangroupsquicklymovedsouth.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.9.10.11.12.13.14.Thereisgrowingsupport…Recentgeologicevidence…Thereisevidencesuggesting…第二題，C，詞匯題。persuasivelypersuasive令人信服的，動詞說服力的，動詞convince說服。Aaggressively地，地，有闖勁地；Binflexibly不屈地，執(zhí)拗地；Dcarefully仔細地。1970年代早期，很多的考古學家都不認為沿海岸航行是一條可能的遷徙至美洲的路線因中只有D說解釋為什么它一開始不被認為是可能的，notconsideredusible對應原文的notconsiderpossible，initiallyoriginally。C錯，因為這段后面給的首的supportisgrowing可以看出來。第四題，A，詞匯題。priorto在…之前，prior優(yōu)先的，的，選Abefore在…之前。Bimmediayafter立即，緊接…之后；Cduring在…期間；Dinspiteof盡管，不顧。1970s定位到本段第三句，直到1970年代初期，很多考古學家都不認為沿海岸航行是岸線的遷徙路線。B錯，他們沒有氣候會持續(xù)變得溫和；C錯，在大陸冰川開始融化之前，他們對于從白令陸橋向南遷徙沒有；D錯，他們?nèi)狈叫屑寄芤约伴L距離航行所需的船只，BCD都是無中生有。第六題，C，句子簡化題。先看原句，F(xiàn)的假說得到額外支持從一個事實中，that從句是對factsuggestingF的假說CF的假說提供了有力支持，語言的最大F的假說得到額外支持從一個事實中，即印第安人語言的多樣性在美洲西海岸最大，意味著這個地區(qū)被居住的時間最長。A因為該地區(qū)域被居住的時間最長，它也展示出印第安人語言最大的多樣性，不是主干信息，都是修飾部分信息，同時兩個分句之前的因果顛倒了；BF的假說認為美洲西海岸被居住的時間比其他地方都長；D根據(jù)F，印第安人的語言在美洲西海岸存活的時間最長；BD錯誤相同，原句沒說F的假說說了什么，只說它被支持。記錄了冰川消融以及無冰區(qū)域廣泛存在于不列顛哥倫比亞的主要海岸線，在13,000同時發(fā)生；C解釋為什么人類在動植物更早之前到達美洲西北海岸線；D表明海岸線理論倫比亞和州的；BCD都是無中生有，切沒提地質(zhì)研究。多樣的；Cisolated第九題，C，細節(jié)題。問大型陸地動物殘骸的發(fā)現(xiàn)通過提供什么支持了海岸線理論。通過remainsoflargelandanimals定位到第一句，這里沒說，所以接著往下看，第二句說C人類很可能可以在沿海走廊找到足夠的資源。A人是出來的；ABD都無中生有，與題干無關。適宜的，選Bnotsuitable不適合的。Anotfamiliar不熟悉的；Cnotdangerous不的；Dnotreachable不可達到的。句說最早的人類殖民可能早在14,000年之前，所以本題選B14,000年前。會；Bprotection保護；Cpossibility可能性。evenif11,00012,000線向西北海岸航行，第二段主旨，同時是全在支持的新觀點，正確；C最近的地質(zhì)16,000年前海岸就有大量的無冰地帶，第四段主要內(nèi)容，正確；D現(xiàn)在研究表明被冰覆蓋的內(nèi)大陸架有一部分被各種非常適應嚴寒環(huán)境的早期人群殖民的，無中生有；E有表明海岸地區(qū)在13,000年到14,000有足夠的食物資源可以支持人類居住，第五段主要內(nèi)容，正確；F盡管大陸北部的經(jīng)濟樣化，一些早期人這種觀念們接受很長時間了：美洲被一群來自亞洲的殖民著，他們在上一個時代緩慢地了一個叫做白令的大陸橋（現(xiàn)在白令海峽位于東北亞和阿加之間。11000到2000白令海峽東部延伸到（大北部的南部，是連在兩個巨大冰床間的半大陸性走廊，向西的Lareide使往南的遷移成為可能。但是當古生態(tài)學者GlenMcDonld不凍走廊存在的重要放射性碳時間不正確時，對于不凍走廊的信念就被了。他令人信服張那樣的不凍走廊直到很久以后才出現(xiàn)，那時大陸冰開始最后的消退。另外一種理論得到越來越多的人的支持，它認為可能早在16000年前，人們使用船 海岸路線的最有的支持者是考古學家KnutFladmark。他認為通過船最近的地質(zhì)研究證明了13000年前在的不列顛可倫比亞省主要海岸地區(qū)無冰之間的250英里的海岸地區(qū)以外，的西北海岸在大概16000年之前都是沒有冰的。沿160001300014000年前的某一的遺跡出現(xiàn)在阿加東南部地區(qū)，其時間為10000年到12500年之前。之前大部分科學生在時代的晚期，可能早達14000年以前。的地質(zhì)資料表明：13000年至14000TPO9-1-2原文：ReflectioninTeachers,itisthought,benefitfromthepracticeofreflection,theconsciousactofthinkingdeeplyaboutandcarefullyexaminingtheinctionsandeventswithintheirownclassrooms.EducatorsT.WildmanandJ.Niles(1987)describeaschemefordeveloreflectivepracticeinexperiencedteachers.Thiswasjustifiedbytheviewthatreflectivepracticecouldhelpteacherstofeelmoreinlectuallyinvolvedintheirroleandworkinteachingandenablethemtocopewiththepaucityofscientificfactandtheuncertaintyofknowledgeinthedisciplineofteaching.WildmanandNileswereparticularlyinterestedininvestigatingtheconditionsunderwhichreflectionmightflourish–asubjectonwhichthereislittleguidanceintheliture.TheydesignedanexperimentalstrategyforagroupofteachersinVirginiaandworkedwith40practicingteachersoverseveralyears.Theywereconcernedthatmanywouldbe“drawntothesenew,refreshing”conceptionsofteachingonlytofindthatthevoidbetweenthe ionsandtherealitiesofteacherreflectionistoogreattobridge.Reflectiononacomplextasksuchasteachingisnoteasy.”Theteachersweretakenthroughaprogramoftalkingaboutteachingevents,movingontoreflectingaboutspecificissuesinasupported,andlateranindependent,WildmanandNilesobservedthatsystematicreflectiononteachingrequiredasoundabilitytounderstandclassroomeventsinanobjectivemanner.Theydescribetheinitialunderstandingintheteacherswithwhomtheywereworkingasbeing“utilitarian…andnotrichordetailedenoughtodrivesystematicreflection.”Teachersrarelyhavethetimeoropportunitiestoviewtheirownortheteachingofothersinanobjectivemanner.Furtherobservationrevealedthetendencyofteacherstoevaluateeventsratherthanreviewthecontributoryfactorsinaconsideredmannerby,ineffect,standingoutsidethesituation.Helthisgroupofteacherstorevisetheirthinkingaboutclassroomeventsbecamecentral.Thisprocesstooktimeandpatienceandeffectivetrainers.Theresearchersestimatethattheinitialtrainingoftheteacherstovieweventsobjectivelytookbetween20and30hours,withthesamenumberofhoursagainbeingrequiredtopracticetheskillsofreflection.WildmanandNilesidentifythreeprinciplesthatfacilitatereflectivepracticeinateachingsituation.Thefirstissupportfromadministratorsinaneducationsystem,enablingteacherstounderstandtherequirementsofreflectivepracticeandhowitrelatestoteachingstudents.Thesecondistheavailabilityofsufficienttimeandspace.Theteachersintheprogramdescribedhowtheyfounditdifficulttoputasidetheimmediatedemandsofothersinordertogivethemselvesthetimetheyneededtodeveloptheirreflectiveskills.Thethirdisthedevelopmentofacollaborativeenvironmentwithsupportfromotherteachers.Supportandencouragementwerealsorequiredtohelpteachersintheprogramcopewithaspectsoftheirprofessionallifewithwhichtheywerenotcomfortable.WildmanandNilesmakeasummarycomment:“Perhapsthemostimportantthingwelearnedistheideaoftheteacher-as-reflective-practitionerwillnothappensimplybecauseitisagoodorevencompellingidea.”TheworkofWildmanandNilessuggeststheimportanceofrecognizingsomeofthedifficultiesofinstitutingreflectivepractice.Othershavenotedthis,makingasimilarpointabouttheteachingprofession’sculturalinhibitionsaboutreflectivepractice.ZeichnerandListon(1987)pointouttheinconsistencybetweentheroleoftheteacherasa(reflective)professionaldecisionmakerandthemoreusualroleoftheteacherasatechnician,puttingintopracticetheideasoftheirs.Morebasicthantheculturalissuesisthematterofmotivation. ingareflectivepractitionerrequiresextrawork(Jaworski,1993)andhasonlyvaguelydefinedgoalswith,perhaps,littleinitiallyperceivablerewardandthethreatofvulnerability.Fewhavedirectlyquestionedwhatmightleadateachertowantto ereflective.Apparently,themostobviousreasonforteacherstoworktowardreflectivepracticeisthatteachereducatorsthinkitisagoodthing.Thereappeartobemanyunexploredmattersaboutthemotivationtoreflect–forexample,thevalueofexternallymotivatedreflectionasopposedtothatofteacherswhomightreflectbyParagraph1:Teachers,itisthought,benefitfromthepracticeofreflection,theconsciousactofthinkingdeeplyaboutandcarefullyexaminingtheinctionsandeventswithintheirownclassrooms.EducatorsT.WildmanandJ.Niles(1987)describeaschemefordeveloreflectivepracticepracticeinexperiencedteachers.ThiswasjustifiedbytheviewthatreflectivepracticecouldteacherstofeelmoreinlectuallyinvolvedintheirroleandworkinteachingandenablethemtocopewiththepaucityofscientificfactandtheuncertaintyofknowledgeinthedisciplineofTheword“justified”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningadoptamoredisciplinedapproachtoParagraph2:WildmanandNileswereparticularlyinterestedininvestigatingtheconditionsunderwhichreflectionmightflourish–asubjectonwhichthereislittleguidanceintheliture.TheydesignedanexperimentalstrategyforagroupofteachersinVirginiaandworkedwith40practicingteachersoverseveralyears.Theywereconcernedthatmanywouldbe“drawntothesenew,refreshing”conceptionsofteachingonlytofindthatthevoidbetweenthe ionsandtherealitiesofteacherreflectionistoogreattobridge.Reflectiononacomplextasksuchasteachingisnoteasy.Theteachersweretakenthroughaprogramoftalkingaboutteachingevents,movingontoreflectingaboutspecificissuesinasupported,andlateranindependent,manner.Theword“flourish”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningAllofthefollowingarementionedabouttheexperimentalstrategydescribedinparagraph2ItwasusedbyagroupofteachersoveraperiodofAccordingtoparagraph2,WildmanandNilesworriedthattheteacherstheywereworkingwithmightfeelthatthenumberofteachersinvolvedintheirprogramwastootheconceptsofteacherreflectionwere thattheycouldnotbetheideasinvolvedinreflectionwereactuallynotnewandseveralyearswouldbeneededtoacquirethehabitofreflectingontheirParagraph3:WildmanandNilesobservedthatsystematicreflectiononteachingrequiredasoundabilitytounderstandclassroomeventsinanobjectivemanner.Theydescribetheinitialunderstandingintheteacherswithwhomtheywereworkingasbeing“utilitarian…andnotrichordetailedenoughtodrivesystematicreflection.”Teachersrarelyhavethetimeoropportunitiestoviewtheirownortheteachingofothersinanobjectivemanner.Furtherobservationrevealedthetendencyofteacherstoevaluateeventsratherthanreviewthecontributoryfactorsinaconsideredmannerby,ineffect,standingoutsidethesituation.Theword“objective”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningAccordingtoparagraph3,whatdidtheteachersworkingwithWildmanandNilesoftenfailtodowhentheyattemptedtopracticereflection?CorrectlycalculatetheamountoftimeneededforProvidesufficientlydetaileddescriptionsofthemethodstheyusedtohelpthemParagraph4:Helthisgroupofteacherstorevisetheirthinkingaboutclassroomeventsbecamecentral.Thisprocesstooktimeandpatienceandeffectivetrainers.Theresearchersestimatethattheinitialtrainingoftheteacherstovieweventsobjectivelytookbetween20and30hours,withthesamenumberofhoursagainbeingrequiredtopracticetheskillsofreflection.Howisparagraph4relatedtootheraspectsofthediscussionofreflectionintheItdescribesandcommentsonstepstakento eproblemsidentifiedearlierintheItchallengestheearlierclaimthatteachersrarelyhavethetimetothinkabouttheirownorothers'teaching.Itidentifiesadvantagesgainedbyteacherswhofollowedthetrainingprogramdescribedearlierinthepassage.ItexinstheprocessusedtodefinetheprinciplesdiscussedlaterintheParagraph5:WildmanandNilesidentifythreeprinciplesthatfacilitatereflectivepracticeinateachingsituation.Thefirstissupportfromadministratorsinaneducationsystem,enablingteacherstounderstandtherequirementsofreflectivepracticeandhowitrelatestoteachingstudents.Thesecondistheavailabilityofsufficienttimeandspace.Theteachersintheprogramdescribedhowtheyfounditdifficulttoputasidetheimmediatedemandsofothersinordertogivethemselvesthetimetheyneededtodeveloptheirreflectiveskills.Thethirdisthedevelopmentofacollaborativeenvironmentwithsupportfromotherteachers.Supportandencouragementwerealsorequiredtohelpteachersintheprogramcopewithaspectsoftheirprofessionallifewithwhichtheywerenotcomfortable.WildmanandNilesmakeasummarycomment:“Perhapsthemostimportantthingwelearnedistheideaoftheteacher-as-reflective-practitionerwillnothappensimplybecauseitisagoodorevencompellingTheword“compelling”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningcommonlyParagraph6:TheworkofWildmanandNilessuggeststheimportanceofrecognizingsomeofthedifficultiesofinstitutingreflectivepractice.Othershavenotedthis,makingasimilarpointabouttheteachingprofession’sculturalinhibitionsaboutreflectivepractice.ZeichnerandListon(1987)pointouttheinconsistencybetweentheroleoftheteacherasa(reflective)professionaldecisionmakerandthemoreusualroleoftheteacherasatechnician,puttingintopracticetheideasoftheirs.Morebasicthantheculturalissuesisthematterofmotivation. ingareflectivepractitionerrequiresextrawork(Jaworski,1993)andhasonlyvaguelydefinedgoalswith,perhaps,littleinitiallyperceivablerewardandthethreatofvulnerability.Fewhavedirectlyquestionedwhatmightleadateachertowantto ereflective.Apparently,themostobviousreasonforteacherstoworktowardreflectivepracticeisthatteachereducatorsthinkitisagoodthing.Thereappeartobemanyunexploredmattersaboutthemotivationtoreflect–forexample,thevalueofexternallymotivatedreflectionasopposedtothatofteacherswhomightreflectbyhabit.itisnotgenerallysupportedbyteacheritisimpossible