TheOneAgainsttheMany

ArthurM.Schlesinger,Jr.U51

2Aboutauthor:ArthurM.Schlesinger,Jr.(1917-2007):oneofAmerica‘smosteminentandcontroversialhistorians.HewasaformerHarvardprofessorandspecialassistanttoPresidentKennedy.Thehistorianwhosemorethan20booksshapeddiscussionsfortwogenerationsaboutAmerica‘spast,andwhohimselfwasaprovocative(煽動性的),unabashedly(不加掩飾的，公然的)liberalpartisan,mostnotablyinservingintheKennedyWhiteHouse,Hisbooks,includesTheAgeofRoosevelt,volumesI,IIandIII;小阿瑟·施萊辛格,美國著名歷史學(xué)家和政治評論家。哈佛畢業(yè)，曾任美國總統(tǒng)肯尼迪的白宮特別助理，被稱為“最了解羅斯福和肯尼迪時代的人”，他支持自由主義，是“美國人爭取民主行動”組織的創(chuàng)始人之一。

3Aboutauthor:《一千天——肯尼迪在白宮》——小阿瑟·施萊辛格

4Para2：Thecountrywasblessedbynotableadvantages——aboveall,bythefactthatpopulationwasscarceinrelationtoavailableresources.Thenwecangetthatasthepopulationspreadacrossthecountry,thepercentageofarablelandincountiesclosesttothedensestpopulationsdeclined.

5Para3:Onefactorwasthedeepfaithineducation.

Thehistoricalreason:ThefirstsettlersofAmericaisagroupofPuritans.Theyweremenofletters,hadattendedOxfordorCambridge,andcommunicatedwithintellectualsoverEurope.

據(jù)記載，早期移民到馬薩諸塞州的人當(dāng)中，有超過一百個牛津、劍橋的畢業(yè)生。在到達(dá)新大陸僅僅六年之后，雖然清教徒們還在為基本的生存條件而奮斗，但是他們卻克服了重重困難建立了哈佛學(xué)院。清教徒期望教會的傳道人有高等的學(xué)歷。今天的美國人毫無疑問地堅持了清教祖先的優(yōu)良傳統(tǒng)，非常地重視教育。所以可以說清教主義促進(jìn)了最初美國教育的發(fā)展，對美國的教育產(chǎn)生了很大的影響。

6Para5：Self-government：Itistheprinciplethatthepeoplearetheultimatesourceofgoverningauthorityandtheirgeneralwelfareistheonlylegitimatepurposeofgovernment.Representativeinstitutions:Itisasystemofgovernmentinstitutionsthatgivecitizenstheopportunitytovoteforrepresentativeswhowillworkontheirbehalf.

7Para7：hedgehog&fox——anallusionfromaGreekpoetArchilochusBasically,humanbeingsarecategorizedaseither"hedgehogs"or"foxes".Hedgehogs'livesareembodimentofasingle,centralvisionofrealityaccordingtowhichthey"feel",breathe,experienceandthink-"systemaddicts",inshort.Foxeslivecentrifugalthancentripetallives,pursuingmanydivergentendsand,generally,possessasenseofrealitythatpreventsthemfromformulatingadefinitegrandsystemof"everything",simplybecausethey"know"thatlifeistoocomplextobesqueezedintoanyProcrusteanunitaryscheme.

8Para7：Thefoxknowsmanythings,butthehedgehogknowsonebigthing.古希臘詩人Archilochus說過：“狐貍知曉很多事物，而刺猬只懂一件重要的事?！币环矫妗按题睈郯岩磺信c一種單一的中心觀念相聯(lián)系,形成一種單一的普遍組織原則，他們的存在以及他們所說的一切便有了意義；另一方面，“狐貍”卻追求多種目標(biāo)，這些目標(biāo)通?；蚝翢o聯(lián)系或相互矛盾，即使有聯(lián)系，也僅僅是事件方面的聯(lián)系。

9Para8：Calvinisttheology(加爾文主義)CalvinismisaProtestanttheologicalsystemandanapproachtotheChristianlife.Calvinistbelieversholdthathisfaith,ratherthanhissins,iswhatwillsavehim.

10Para8：FivepointsofCalvinism1.Totaldepravity人完全墮落無法自救2.Unconditionalelection神無條件揀選罪人3.Limitedatonement有限的代贖4.Irresistiblegrace

不可抗拒的恩典5.Perseveranceofthesaints

圣徒蒙保守這五點教義的英文首字字母恰Tulip，即“郁金香”之義。

Empiricismisatheorywhichstatesthatknowledgecomesonlyorprimarilyfromsensoryexperience.Oneofseveralviewsofepistemology,thestudyofhumanknowledge,alongwithrationalismandskepticism,empiricismemphasizestheroleofexperienceandevidence,especiallysensoryexperience,intheformationofideas,overthenotionofinnateideasortraditions;empiricistsmayarguehoweverthattraditions(orcustoms)ariseduetorelationsofprevioussenseexperiences.Empiricism經(jīng)驗論119/21/2023Rationalism

理性主義rationalismistheviewthat"regardsreasonasthechiefsourceandtestofknowledge"or"anyviewappealingtoreasonasasourceofknowledgeorjustification".Moreformally,rationalismisdefinedasamethodologyoratheory"inwhichthecriterionofthetruthisnotsensorybutintellectualanddeductive".Rationalistsbelieverealityhasanintrinsicallylogicalstructure.Becauseofthis,rationalistsarguethatcertaintruthsexistandthattheintellectcandirectlygraspthesetruths.Thatistosay,rationalistsassertthatcertainrationalprinciplesexistinlogic,mathematics,ethics,andmetaphysicsthataresofundamentallytruethatdenyingthemcausesonetofallintocontradiction.Rationalistshavesuchahighconfidenceinreasonthatproofandphysicalevidenceareunnecessarytoascertaintruth–inotherwords,"therearesignificantwaysinwhichourconceptsandknowledgearegainedindependentlyofsenseexperience".Becauseofthisbelief,empiricismisoneofrationalism'sgreatestrivals.129/21/2023Apriori

先驗的

“Apriori”isaLatintermusedtoidentifyatypeofknowledgewhichisobtainedindependentlyofexperience.Apropositionisknownaprioriifwhenjudgedtrueorfalseonedoesnotrefertoexperience.139/21/2023Pragmatism

實用主義PragmatismisaphilosophicaltraditionthatbeganintheUnitedStatesaround1870.[1]Pragmatismisarejectionoftheideathatthefunctionofthoughtistodescribe,represent,ormirrorreality.Instead,pragmatistsdeveloptheirphilosophyaroundtheideathatthefunctionofthoughtisasaninstrumentortoolforprediction,action,andproblemsolving.Pragmatistscontendthatmostphilosophicaltopics—suchasthenatureofknowledge,language,concepts,meaning,belief,andscience—areallbestviewedintermsoftheirpracticalusesandsuccessesratherthanintermsofrepresentativeaccuracy.149/21/2023CharlesSandersPeirce(andhispragmaticmaxim)deservesmuchofthecreditforpragmatism,alongwithlatertwentiethcenturycontributors,WilliamJamesandJohnDewey.PragmatismenjoyedrenewedattentionafterWillardVanOrmanQuineandWilfridSellarsusedarevisedpragmatismtocriticizelogicalpositivisminthe1960s.InspiredbytheworkofQuineandSellars,abrandofpragmatismknownsometimesasneopragmatismgainedinfluencethroughRichardRorty,themostinfluentialofthelatetwentiethcenturypragmatistsalongwithHilaryPutnamandRobertBrandom.Contemporarypragmatismmaybebroadlydividedintoastrictanalytictraditionanda"neo-classical"pragmatism(suchasSusanHaack)thatadherestotheworkofPeirce,James,andDewey.159/21/2023WilliamJames(1842-1910)WilliamJameswasanoriginalthinkerinthedisciplinesofphysiology,psychologyandphilosophy.HestudiedandlatertaughtatHarvard.His1200masterwork,ThePrinciplesofPsychology,isarichblendofphysiology,psychology,philosophy,andpersonalreflection.ItcontainsseedsofpragmatismandinfluencedgenerationsofthinkersinEuropeandAmerica.In1907hepublishedPragmatism:ANewNameforSomeOldWaysofThinking,theculminatingexpressionofasetofviewspermeatinghiswritings.169/21/2023Absolutism

專制主義Thebeliefthatthereisoneandonlyonetruth.Thosewhoespouseabsolutismusuallyalsobelievetheyknoworhaveaccesstowhatthisabsolutetruthis.179/21/2023Determinism

決定論Determinismisthephilosophicalpositionthatforeveryevent,includinghumanaction,existconditionsthatcouldcausenootherevent."Therearemanydeterminisms,dependinguponwhatpre-conditionsareconsideredtobedeterminativ