ABriefOverviewofCognitivismaboutitslearningtheories組員：廖丹、崔艷霞、潘綠樂、彭艷、沈琳、寧丹丹

Piaget’sTheoryofCognitivismKeyIdeas:schema:patterns

ofbehaviororthinkingdevelopingfrominteractionbetweeninnatetendencyandenvironment.cognitivestructures:takeexternalsensoryin,interpretandtransform.Intellectualdevelopment:theproductofadaptation,whichreferstothechildren'sabilitytoadapttotheirenvironment.Fourfactors:biologicalmaturation,experiencewiththephysicalenvironment,experiencewiththesocialenvironment,andequilibrationCognitivegrowth:sensorimotor,preoperational,concreteoperations,andformaloperations(Saettler,1990:331).Piaget'stheoryclaimsthatdevelopmenthasanendpointingoal.SuggestionsforTeachers:todevelopanadequatemodelofthinkingpatternforthestudents,todevisesituationsthatchallengetheirwayofthinking,andtohelpstudentsexaminethecoherenceintheircurrentmodesofthinking.

Vygotsky’sSocialConstructivismVygotsky’sViews

Vygotsky’stheoryemphasizesthesocialenvironmentasafacilitatorofdeveloping

andlearning.Inhisopinion,developmentisaprocessthatshouldbeanalyzed,instead

ofaproducttobeobtained.AccordingtoVygotsky,thedevelopmentprocessthat

beginsatbirthandcontinuesuntildeathissocomplexthatitcannotbedefinedby

stages.Hecontendsthathumanshavetheabilitytoaltertheenvironmentfortheirown

purposesandthatone’sinteractionswiththeenvironmentcontributetothesuccessin

learning.ZoneofProximalDevelopment

Inhisexperiments,VygtoskyputforwardthenotionoftheZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD)(Vygotsky，1978):thedistancebetweenwhatchildrencandobythemselvesandfurtherlearningthattheycanbehelpedtoachievewithcompetentassistance."Throughthisnotionhefoundtheconceptofalearningenvironmentconsistingnotonlyofchildrenandlearningmaterialandprocesses,butchildren,learningmaterialandinteractivecommunication.

Glasersfeld’sRadicalConstructivismFundamentalPrinciples:(a)Knowledgeisnotpassivelyreceivedeitherthroughthesensesorbywayofcommunication;itisactivelybuiltupbythe

cognizingsubject;(b)Thefunctionofcognitionisadaptiveandservestheorganizationoftheexperientialworld,notthediscoveryofontologicalreality."RadicalConstructivism:1.Allknowledgeisconstructedratherthandiscoveredandthatitisimpossibletotellandquiteunnecessarytoknowthatknowledgereflectsanontologicalreality.2.The'fitting'ofknowledgetoourexperiences,oritscognitiveviability(生存力),isthekeytoevaluatingcompetingknowledgeclaimsandthemethodinwhichwelearn.3.Theobjectiveworldcan'tbegraspedandwecanonlygettoknowourempiricalworldcreatedbyourselves.4.Inessence,itisatheoryaboutknowledgeoratheoryaboutcognition.

InformationProcessingTheories:

Likeacomputer,thehumanmindtakesininformation(input),organizesit,storesitforlateruse(processing)andthenretrievesit(output)whennecessary.Theacquisition,storage,retrieval,andutilizationofinformationinvolveanumberofseparatestages,andtheinformation-processingapproachattemptstoidentifywhathappensduringthesestages.Shortcomings:

Itplaceslittleornoemphasisuponthewaysinwhichindividualsseektobringasenseofpersonalmeaningtotheirworlds.Itisessentiallymechanisticandnotatallconcernedwithmeaningsoremotions.InformationProcessingConstructivismConstructivismViewConstructivismViewofTeachersVonGlasersfeld(1991:15)asserts:Constructivismcannottellteachersnewthingstodo,butitmaysuggestwhycertainattitudesandproceduresarecounter-productive,anditmaypointoutopportunitiesforteacherstousetheirownspontaneousimagination.Duringconstructivistteaching,teachersarenotmerelyinvolvedinobservedinteractionsaboutknowledgeorviewswithlearners,butalsounobservedinteractionsaboutbeliefsineachother,whicharedelicatelypackagedintheirexternalbehaviors.Asconstructivistteachers,theyencouragestudentstoconstantlyassesshowtheactivityishelpingthemgainunderstanding.ConstructivistViewofLearners

Intheconstructivists’opinion,studentscontroltheirownlearningprocessandplaythemainroleinthelearningprocessbyreflectingontheirexperiences.Thisprocessmakesthembecomeexpertsoftheirownlearning.Theteacherhelpscreatesituationswherethestudentsfeelsafequestioningandreflectingontheirownprocesses,eitherprivatelyoringroupdiscussions.Talkingaboutwhathasbeenlearnedandhowithasbeenlearnedisreallyimportanttolearners.Byquestioningthemselvesandtheirstrategies,studentsbecomeexpertlearnersastheylearnhowtolearn.Thestudentsthenhavethetoolsnecessaryforthemtobecomelife-longlearners.ConstructivistViewoftheClassroomEnvironment

Learningcontextoccupiesaveryimportantplaceintheconstructivistmodel.Learningnevertakesplaceinavacuum.ItalwaysoccurswithinaparticularcontextwhetheroneadoptsaPiagetianperspective,whichsupposesastudentexploringhisenvironmentindividually,ortheapproachwehavestronglyadvocatedinthispaperthatrightfrombirthlearningistheresultofsocialinteractions.Infact,learningoccurswithinavarietyofoftenoverlappingcontexts,someofwhicharemoreconductivetotheprocessofcognitive,affective,moralandsocialdevelopmentthanothers.TheoryofCognitiveDevelopmentTheoryPiaget(1972)：individualconstructstheirknowledgeabouttheexternalworldgraduallyviainteractionwithitsenvironment,resultinginthedevelopmentofitscognitivestructure.TheconceptofCognitiveDevelopment:Thelearners'cognitivesystemisinconstanttransitionofequilibrationanddisequilibration,formingacirculatingdynamicprocess,fromdisequalibration,thentoanewequalibration.Inthisprocess,theindividual'scognitivedevelopmentisgraduallyaccomplished.

ApplicationTheconceptofassimilationandaccommodationbringsimplicationstovocabularylearning.Learnersneedtomodifywhattheyalreadyknowaboutthenewwords(accommodation)soasto"fit"thenewinformationintotheirexistingknowledge(assimilation).Inthisway,thereconstructuringoftheinterlanguagesystemwillbepromoted.DiscoveryLearningTheoryBruner(1990):learningshouldberegardedasaprocessofnewinformationgatheringandknowledgeprocessing.Learningisanactiveprocessinwhichnewideasbasedupontheircurrentandpastknowledge.TheconceptofDiscoveryLearning:theunderlyingassumptionisthatstudentsarelikelytorememberconceptsdiscoverbythemselves.Therefore,theteacherisadvisedtobeneficialtothestudents'discoveryofnewknowledge.ApplicationBruner'sDiscoveryLearningishelpfultothestudyofvocabularylearning.Learnersareencouragedtoactivelyconstructtheirownwordknowledgeanddiscoverforthemselvestheoptimalmethodsoflearningnewwords.Thisactivediscoveryandsolutiontothevocabularylearningproblemswillresultindeepandlastingmemoryofthelanguage.PersonalConstruction

TheoryKelly(1963)：emphasizedthateachindividualhasdifferentpersonalconstructsabouttheobjectiveworldowingtotheirdifferentcognitivepreferenceandcurrentknowledgelevel.TheconceptofPersonalConstruction:Itlaysfoundationforthecooperativeteachingmodel.ApplicationKelly‘spersonalconstructapproachisquiteusefultoproblemsolving,readingcomprehension,acquisitionoffactualknowledge,andespeciallyvaluabletovocabularylearning.Learningstrategiesmaybecomeautomaticafterrepeateduseorafteraskillhasbeenfullyacquired.Besides,acleardistinctionismadebetweenmeaningfulandmeaninglessvocabularylearningactivities.Ameaningfullylearneditemhasfargreaterpotentialforretention,inthatithasmanymentalconnectionswithformeritemsorothermaterials.SocioculturalTheoryTheory：Vygotslcy：hisviewbelongstoarelativelymoderateconstructivism,whichemphasizestheinteractionbetweentheindividualandthesocietyandcultureinwhichhelives.

TheconceptofZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD).Application：Peercollaboration：Workingontaskscooperativelyisaneffectivewayforenhancinglearning,especiallywheneachofthecooperativegroupshasassignedresponsibility.Whatteacherscandotohelplearnersintheirvocabularylearning：settasksthatareataleveljustbeyondthatatwhichthelearnersarecurrentlycapableoffunctioningVygotsky'sviewshedslightontheinteractionbetweenstudentsandteachersandalsowiththeirpeers.Thefeedbackfrombothteachersandpeerstudentscanpromotetheirvocabularylearning.ASocialConstructivistModel

WilliamandBurden(2000)integratethetheoriesofhumanism,cognitivepsychology,constructivismandsocialinteractionismtoraisetheirsocialconstructivistmodeloftheteaching-learningprocess.Teachers,learners,tasksandcontextsarethefourkeysetsoffactorsofthismodel.Thesocialconstructivistmodelemphasizesactivelyconstructtheirknowledgethroughinterplaywiththatlearnersinreal-worldcase-basedlearningsituationPedagogicalImplicationsATaskbasedInteractiveVocabularyLearningModelToconsolidatethelearnedknowledgeandtodevelopactualproblemsolvingability,learnerscanlearnnewknowledgeviaaccomplishingauthentictasksindependentlyorjointlywithotherpeersthroughatask-basedteachingmodelProcessesofVLSTrainingVocabularylearningstrategiesareessentialtovocabularyacquisition,therefore,itisnecessarytotrainstudentswithvocabularylearningstrategies.Anderson(1985)devisedthethree-stagetheory,cognitive,associative,autonomous.Strategy-trainingisastep-by-stepprocessanditisameansbutnotanend.TeachersplayanimportantrolebuttheimmediategoalistofacilitateL2learningwhiletheultimategoalistoproduceautonomouslearners.

Socrates'theoryandapplicationin“self-access”or“autonomouslearning”InSocrates'opinion,beingamosttalentedperson,oneshouldnotonlybewisebutalsofullofconfidenceandcourage.

Thewriterbelievesthatlearnerscanlearnmoreandenjoylearningmorethanbeforebecausetheirconfidenceinlearning.So,inordertogettheabilityof“self-access”or“autonomouslearning”,thelearnershouldfirstnurturetheirconfidenceandfullofcourage.Socratesbelievedthat“Everyoneistalented.Thekeypointsliesinhowtoknowwhoheorsheis,develophisorherabilityandmakegooduseofit.”

Accordingtothewriter’ssurvey,whenthelearnersaresuretheyhavetheabilitytofulfillanimportanttask,theirpotentialabilitywilltransferredintorealability,andhelpthelearnerstofinishitandviceversa.

Asalearner,oneshouldbelievehisorherownability,whichcanbeapromotingpowerorengineforheorsheintheprocessoflearning.“Confidenceinyourselfisthefirststepontheroadtosuccess.”

JeromeBruner's'theoryandapplicationin“self-access”or“autonomouslearning”Brunerbelievesthatpeopleinterprettheworldintermsofitssimilaritiesanddifferencesandsuggested"acodesystem“.Intheprocessofconstructivisttheoryoflearning,thelearnersmayhavethechancetosetupandenhancethe“codesystem”whiletransferringthenewlylearnedknowledge.Codingsystemplaysanimportantrolein“self-access”or“autonomouslearning”.Inthewriter’sresearch,forlackofsettingup“coding,system”,it’sdifficultforthelearnerstoanalyze,reorganizeorreusetheinformation.Whilewiththehelpof“coding”,thelearnerhavethechancetodevelophisorhermemorybanks,andfinditeasiertolearnnewinformationandthusarousethelearners'learningmotivationthroughtheirinformationcoding.Ontheonehand,thelearnersshouldlearntosetupthe“codingsystem”tolearnnewinformationasneededsoastomeettheneedof“updatinghisorherknowledge”.Ontheotherhand,thelearnersshouldstrengthentheir“codingsystem”afternewknowledgeislearned.LevVygotsky's'theoryandapplicationin“self-access”or“autonomouslearning”Vygotskyintroducedthe"zoneofproximaldevelopment"Thekeypointofthistheoryisthatatanygiventimeforanylearner,thereexistsmaterialthatwouldbethenextbestmaterialtolearn.ScaffoldingisatermoriginatedfromVygotsky’stheory,whichmeansintheenvironmentofEnglishlearning,theteacherdoessomeoftheworkforthelearnerwhoisn’tquitereadytoaccomplishataskindependently.Inthewriter’spointofview,theabilityofmakingthe"zoneofproximaldevelopment"and“scaffolding"fromthestartingpointofthelearner’sknowledgelevelisvitalforautonomouslearning.WhilelearningEnglishknowledge,theteacherhelpedthelearnerstomakethe“zoneofproximaldevelopment".whichactasthescaffoldofabuilding.Withtheprogressoflearning,thelearnerslearnedtobuildtheirown"zoneofproximaldevelopment",andtheteacher'sresponsibilitygraduallyshiftedtothelearners.Bymaking