僅做參考好好學(xué)習(xí)，天天向上Unit10PartBTheSocialControlofScienceandTechnology對(duì)科學(xué)和技術(shù)的社會(huì)監(jiān)督Scienceandtechnologyarenotsimplytheworkofisolatedindividuals:theselectionofresearchproblemsandtherateanddirectionofinnovationarestronglyinfluencedbysocialforces.Itisnoaccident,forexample,thatsomuchappliedresearchintheUnitedStatesfocusesonthedevelopmentofmilitaryandcommercialproducts.Itfollowsthatscienceandtechnologycan'tberegardedassomehowindependentofsociety.Likeanyotherculturalproducts,theyarecreatedandcontrolledbycountlessindividualmenandwomen.Thedifficultyisthatthiscontrolishaphazard.Wehavecreatedacomplexinstitutiontoensurethedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,butwehavecreatedfewmeansofmonitoringandcontrollingtheireffects—despitetheimpacttheseeffectscanhaveonthesocialorder.科學(xué)和技術(shù)不僅僅是孤立的個(gè)人的工作:研究課題的選擇、創(chuàng)新的進(jìn)度和方向均受社會(huì)力量的影響。這并非偶然，例如：在美國(guó)，許多應(yīng)用研究的重點(diǎn)是發(fā)展軍事和金融產(chǎn)品。因此，科學(xué)和技術(shù)不能被視為如何獨(dú)立的社會(huì)。像任何其他文化產(chǎn)品，它們是被無(wú)數(shù)個(gè)男人和女人建立和控制的。困難的是,這種控制是偶然的。我們已經(jīng)創(chuàng)造了一個(gè)復(fù)雜的制度以確保科技的發(fā)展,但是我們很少監(jiān)控他們的影響——盡管這方面可能對(duì)社會(huì)秩序產(chǎn)生影響。Thelackofsystematicsocialcontroloverscientificandtechnologicalinnovationpresentsthreemainproblems:(1)Arelativelyhaphazardscientificandtechnologicaladvancemayhavemanyunforeseensocialeffects,particularlyintermsofthequalityoftheenvironment.Consider,forexample,thegrowinglistofchemicalandfoodadditivesthatmaycontributetohumancancers;theincreasingatmosphericpollutionthatsomescientiststhinkmayleadtoclimaticchangeswhichcouldcauseanewiceage;themountinghealthproblemscausedbychemicalwastesthathavebeenimproperlydisposedof;andtheominousthreatofmajoraccidentsinnuclearpowerplants.缺乏有系統(tǒng)的社會(huì)控制科學(xué)和技術(shù)的創(chuàng)新有如下三個(gè)問(wèn)題：(1)相對(duì)盲目科技進(jìn)步可能有許多無(wú)法預(yù)知的社會(huì)影響,特別是在環(huán)境質(zhì)量方面。設(shè)想一下,例如,越來(lái)越多的化工和食品添加劑,可能導(dǎo)致人類(lèi)得癌癥;部分科學(xué)家們認(rèn)為大氣污染的增加,可能導(dǎo)致氣候變化，這種變化會(huì)導(dǎo)致一個(gè)新的冰河時(shí)期;化學(xué)廢物的處置不當(dāng)會(huì)造成越來(lái)越多的健康問(wèn)題，核電站重大事故的潛在威脅。(2)Unlesssocietyensuresthatinnovationsinscienceandtechnologytakeplaceinaccordancewithdefinedsocialgoals,theremaybedistortionintheprioritiesgiventoresearcheffortsindifferentfields.Criticsarguethatundertheexistingarrangements,scarceandvaluableresourcesmaybedevotedtoproducingsuchtriviaasself-heatingshavingcream,whentheymightotherwisebedevotedtomoresociallydesirableends,suchasmedicalresearchorenergyconservation.(2),除非社會(huì)能夠確保科技創(chuàng)新的發(fā)生有明確的社會(huì)目標(biāo)，在不同領(lǐng)域的研究工作按優(yōu)先權(quán)的不同而順序不同。批評(píng)者認(rèn)為，在現(xiàn)有的安排下，稀缺和寶貴的資源可能會(huì)被用于生產(chǎn)類(lèi)似于自加熱剃須膏之類(lèi)的產(chǎn)品，然而這些資源也可被用于如醫(yī)療研究或節(jié)能等更可取的地方(3)Ahighlytechnologicalsocietyposesapossiblethreattodemocracy.Publicparticipationinthedecision-makingprocessmaybecomedifficultbecausetherelevantfactsaboutmanyimportantissues—suchasthewisdomofbuildingnuclearbreederreactors—maybebeyondthecomprehensionofbothvotersandtheirelectedrepresentatives.Severalwritershavewarnedofthedangersoftechnocracy,orrulebyexperts.Inmoderncorporationsandgovernmentdepartmentstherealdecisionsareoftenmadebehindthescenesbyexpertswhosespecializedknowledgeandrecommendationsarerelieduponbythosewhoareofficiallyresponsibleforthedecisions.(3)高技術(shù)社會(huì)可能對(duì)民主帶來(lái)了威脅。公眾參與決策的過(guò)程可能變得困難,因?yàn)橛嘘P(guān)的事實(shí)表明許多重要課題是選民和他們選出的代表無(wú)法理解的，例如：智能建筑怒族和不明確的反應(yīng)堆。幾個(gè)作家已經(jīng)對(duì)技術(shù)或?qū)＜乙?guī)則發(fā)出警告。在現(xiàn)代企業(yè)和政府部門(mén)的真正的決定依賴(lài)于專(zhuān)家的專(zhuān)業(yè)知識(shí)和建議，但是這些均受制于對(duì)這些決定所負(fù)責(zé)的人的決定。Anyattempttoapplyamoresystematicformofsocialcontroloverscienceandtechnologywouldprobablyrunintosevereproblems.Onesuchprobleminvolvesaconflictofvalues.andideallythisactivityshouldtakeplaceinanatmosphereofcompleteintellectualfreedom.Thereareenoughunhappyexamplesinthepastofnonscientistsattemptingtodictatetoscientistswhattheyshouldandshouldnotinvestigate;weshouldbewaryofdoingthesame.Shouldweimposerestrictionsonresearch,andifso,whatrestrictions?Asimilarconflictofvaluesmightariseifsocietyattemptedtoshiftprioritiesinappliedresearchfromthemanufactureoftrivialcommercialproductstoothersocialgoals.RadicalchangesintheseprioritieswouldinevitablyinterferewiththeworkingofthecapitalistsystemthatmostAmericansvaluesohighly.關(guān)于科學(xué)與技術(shù)的應(yīng)用系統(tǒng)形式的社會(huì)控制可能導(dǎo)致嚴(yán)重的問(wèn)題。其中的一個(gè)問(wèn)題是價(jià)值沖突?？茖W(xué)對(duì)象是對(duì)知識(shí)的追求，理想狀態(tài)下，這種活動(dòng)在一個(gè)完整的知識(shí)自由的氛圍下產(chǎn)生。許多不幸的例子表明，在過(guò)去非科學(xué)家告訴科學(xué)家什么該做，什么不該做。我們擔(dān)心類(lèi)似事情的發(fā)生。我們應(yīng)該對(duì)研究施加限制嗎？如果是，是那種限制那？如果社會(huì)試圖將優(yōu)先權(quán)從瑣碎的商業(yè)產(chǎn)品制造轉(zhuǎn)向其他社會(huì)的目標(biāo)將會(huì)產(chǎn)生類(lèi)似的價(jià)值觀的沖突。徹底改變這些優(yōu)先權(quán)不可避免地會(huì)妨礙資本主義制度的運(yùn)作,這種制度是大多數(shù)美國(guó)人所支持的。Anotherprobleminvolvesthemoralresponsibilityfordecisionsaboutresearchthatmayhavefar-reachingconsequences.Thedevelopmentofthehydrogenbombisbutoneexampleofmanyinwhichtechnicalandmoralissuesarenoteasilyseparatedinpractice.Atpresent,scientistsusuallycan'tanddonotcontroltheusestowhichtheirworkisput,althoughtherearesignsthatmanyscientistsarenowverydisturbedaboutthissituation.Oughttheresponsibilityfordecisionsaboutnewresearchandtechnologyrestwithscientiststhemselves,orwithgovernment,orwithsomenewcontrolagencysuchasa"sciencecourt"withfulllegalpowerstorestrictcertainresearch?Thequestionisavitalone,forscientificandtechnologicaladvanceintheyearsaheadmaychangeourmaterialandsocialenvironmentinwaysthatmanypeoplemightconsiderundesirable.另一個(gè)問(wèn)題涉及道德責(zé)任的研究可能有深遠(yuǎn)的影響。氫彈的發(fā)展就是許多在技術(shù)和道德的問(wèn)題并不是容易分離中的其中一個(gè)例子。目前科學(xué)家通常不能也無(wú)法控制他們?cè)诠ぷ髦械氖褂?，有跡象顯示，現(xiàn)在許多科學(xué)家都對(duì)這種情況感到不安。關(guān)于新研究技術(shù)的責(zé)任取決于科學(xué)家本身，還是政府，還是類(lèi)似于“科學(xué)法院”之類(lèi)的具有充分的法律權(quán)力科學(xué)研究機(jī)構(gòu)?？茖W(xué)和技術(shù)在未來(lái)幾年內(nèi)的進(jìn)步可能會(huì)改變我們的物質(zhì)和社會(huì)環(huán)境，這可能是很多人所不喜歡的。Someofthescientificresearchcurrentlyinprogressillustratesthesignificanceofthisproblem.Scientistsarenowworkingontechniquesthatmaymakeitpossibleforparentstodeterminethesexoftheirchildren.Ifamarketableproducteventuallyemerges,commercialinterestsmayencouragewidespreadsexselectionofchildren.Thismaysoundlikesociallyusefultechnologyuntilweconsideronefactor.OpinionpollsintheUnitedStatesandelsewherehaveindicatedthatalargemajorityofparentswouldprefertohaveboysratherthangirls.Theresultofsexselectionmightbeasocietyinwhichmalesheavilyoutnumberfemales,withimportanteffectsonpopulationstructure,familypatterns,andsexualnorms.Dowewantthiskindofsituation,andshouldthedecisionbelefttocommercialinterests?目前一些科學(xué)研究的緊張表明這種問(wèn)題的嚴(yán)重性?？茖W(xué)家們現(xiàn)在正致力于父母決定孩子的性別技術(shù)的研究。如果最終出現(xiàn)一個(gè)適銷(xiāo)對(duì)路的產(chǎn)品，商業(yè)利益可能鼓勵(lì)孩子的性別的選擇。直到我們考慮的因素之一，這聽(tīng)起來(lái)像是對(duì)社會(huì)有用的技術(shù)。民意調(diào)查顯示,在美國(guó)和其他地方,大多數(shù)的父母希望男孩多于女孩。性別選擇的結(jié)果是：可能在一個(gè)社會(huì)里，男性的數(shù)量遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超過(guò)了女性的數(shù)量，這將對(duì)人口結(jié)構(gòu)、,家庭模式,和性準(zhǔn)則產(chǎn)生重要影響。我們真的希望這種情況發(fā)生嗎？這種事情應(yīng)交由商業(yè)利益來(lái)決定嗎？Anothercontroversialfieldofresearchinvolvesthere-arrangementoflivingmolecules,inparticulartheDNAmoleculethatdeterminesthehereditaryofalllivingthings.Thisresearchcanhavemanyuses,rangingfromthecontrolofinsectpeststothetreatmentofcancers.Thedangerexists,however,thatnewandharmfulstrainsofvirusesandbacteriacanbecreatedinthecourseofthisresearch.Humanbeingswouldhavenonaturalimmunitytothesestrains.Lossofcontroloversuchnewlifeformscouldleadtocatastrophic,worldwideepidemics.ScientistshavebeenquicktorecognizethisdangerandhavethemselvessetupstrictguidelinesandsafetyproceduresforDNAresearch.Somescientists,however,believethateventhesesafeguardsareinadequateandhavecalledforatotalbanonthiskindofresearch.另一個(gè)爭(zhēng)議的研究領(lǐng)域涉及重新安排的生物分子，特別是在決定了萬(wàn)物的遺傳的DNA分子。本研究可以有許多用途,從病蟲(chóng)害到癌癥的治療。然而危險(xiǎn)依然存在，一些人類(lèi)沒(méi)有天然免疫的新的和有害的細(xì)菌和病毒菌株能在研究過(guò)程中被創(chuàng)造出來(lái)。對(duì)這種新的生命形式的控制損失，可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致災(zāi)難性的后果，全球的流行病。科學(xué)家們很快就認(rèn)識(shí)到這種危險(xiǎn)，并有自己建立的關(guān)于DNA研究的嚴(yán)格的指導(dǎo)方針和安全程序。然而，一些科學(xué)家認(rèn)為，即使這些保障措施是不夠的，并已呼吁全面禁止這方面的研究。TheseareexamplesoftheproblemsposedbyscienceandtechnologythatweinAmericaandothersocietiesface.Scienceandtechnologyhavedevelopedfarfasterthanhavesocialmechanismstocontrolthem.Acenturyago,sciencewasofmarginalimportancetosocietyandtechnologywasrelativelyundeveloped.Todaytheyoffertheprospectofsocialupheavalandeventhedestructionofhumanlife—orthepotentialforunprecedentedsocialbenefitsandnewlevelsofcivilizedexistence.Anurgentsocialchallengeinthefuturewillbetoensurethatscienceandtechnologydevelopexclusivelyintheseconddirection.這些都是科學(xué)和技術(shù)所造成的問(wèn)題，這些問(wèn)題在美國(guó)和其他國(guó)家正在面臨?？茖W(xué)和技術(shù)的快速發(fā)展已經(jīng)超出社會(huì)機(jī)制的控制。一個(gè)世紀(jì)前,科學(xué)對(duì)社會(huì)重要性不大，技術(shù)比較落后。今天,他們提供的社會(huì)動(dòng)蕩的前景,甚至能夠破壞人類(lèi)生活——或潛在的空前的社會(huì)效益和新層次的文明的存在。一個(gè)緊迫的社會(huì)挑戰(zhàn)的未來(lái)將是確?？茖W(xué)和技術(shù)發(fā)展完全在第一方向。PassageOneSomeanalystsconsidertheprocessofautomationasecondindustrialrevolutionwiththepotentialityforsocialupheavalthatmarkedthebirthofthefactoryacenturyandahalfago.Othersinsistitisjustanotherstepinindustry'sprogresstowardgreaterefficiency,nodifferentinitsbasicattributesfromanyofthetechnologicaladvancesthathavehelpedraiseAmericanwages,employmenttotalsandlivingstandards.Congressionalinvestigations,puzzledaboutwhatactionthegovernmentshouldtake,havebeentoldbyunionleadersthatautomationthreatensmassunemploymentandbybusinessexecutivesthatitwillbringunparalleledprosperity.Engineerssaythatpush-buttonfactoriesmayeventuallypermitaworkscheduleinwhichtheweek-endwillbelongerthantheweek.Educatorsseethisleisurepromotingascholasticrenaissanceinwhichculturalattainmentswillbecometheyardstickofsocialrecognitionforworkerandbossalike.Gloomierobserversfearthetrendtoward"inhumanproduction"willendbymakingmenobsolete.Thepassageisprimarilyconcernedwith_____.A.robotsatworkB.machinesvsmankindC.speculationsonautomationD.ourrisingstandardofliving2.Thepassagestatesthatautomationhas_____.A.causedgreatsocialchangesB.madetheUnitedStatesamoreculturalandemployeesC.broughtaboutbetterrelationsbetweenemployersandemployeesD.alreadybeenbroughttotheattentionofCongress3.Whichofthefollowingstatementsistrue?A.Thegovernmentfavorsautomation.B.Industryhasmadegreatadvancesinthepast150yearsC.Engineersopposeautomation.D.Morepeoplefavorautomationthanopposeit.4.Thepositionoftheauthoristo____.A.presentunfavorableopinionsonautomationB.convincethereadersofthebenefitsofautomationC.presentdifferentopinionsonautomationD.urgethegovernmenttopromoteautomation5.Whoseopinionindicatesthatautomationwillbringgreatsocialchange?A.Someanalysts.B.Unionleaders.C.Education.D.Someobservers.PassageTwoTheannouncementthatEngland'smadcowdiseasewasinvolvedin10casesofafatalhumanbraindisorderhasbeenmetwithunderstandablehysteria.ThemarketforBritishbeefcollapsed,100,000farmers'jobsareinjeopardy,andthegovernmentistryingtodefuseacrisisthatcouldcausebillionsofdollarsinlosses.Butwhatisstrikingaboutthesituationishowsharplythedecisivepublicreactiontothecrisiscontrastswiththecautiouslanguageintheannouncement.Scientistssaidconsumptionofcontaminatedbeefwas"themostlikelyexplanation"for10casesofasimilarhumanillnesscalledCreutzfeldt-Jakobdisease—nothingmorethanthat.Thecrisisisatellingexampleofaphenomenonoccurringevermorefrequently:acomplexscientificdebateissuddenlythrustuponananxiouspublicthatisill-equippedtounderstandit.Instantcommunications,combinedwiththegreaterwillingnessofgovernmentandindustryleaderstogopublicwiththeirscientificdispute,triggerconcern.Thecoreofrealsciencegetsoverwhelmedbyaflurryof"junkscience"—conflictingstatementsbypoliticians,confusingpressreports,legaldepositions,evenduelingads.Therealproblemisthenatureofscientificinquiry,whichinevitablyinvolvesuncertainty.Researcherscannotsayconclusivelywhethermadcowdiseaseposesarisktohumans.Theydon'tknowtheextentoftheepidemicorhowitcanbestopped.Indeed,theycan'tevenagreeonthecause."Thisistremendouslydifficultforthepublictosortout.Ifscientistsaredisagreeing,what'sthecitizentopresume?"asksPaulSlovic,anAmericanpsychologistatDecisionResearchinEugene.Onelessontobedrawnfromthemadcowcrisisisthatgovernmentsshouldn'tcutfundingforbasicresearch,whichcanhelppreventtomorrow'scrises.Buttheonlyrealsolutionisforgovernmentandindustryleaderstousescientificinformationresponsibly.Unresolvedscientificdisputeshavebecomeafactofmodernlife.Nothingelsesoclearlyillustratesscience'slimits.6.Theannouncementindicatingtheconnectionbetweenthemadcowdiseaseandthefatalhuma