5FIRMBEHAVIORANDTHEORGANIZATIONOFINDUSTRY企業(yè)行為與產(chǎn)業(yè)組織TheCostsofroduction

消費(fèi)本錢Chapter13TheMarketForcesofSupplyandDemandSupplyanddemandarethetwowordsthateconomistsusemostoften.Supplyanddemandaretheforcesthatmakemarketeconomieswork.Modernmicroeconomicsisaboutsupply,demand,andmarketequilibrium.供應(yīng)與需求的市場(chǎng)力量供應(yīng)與需求是經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家最常用的兩個(gè)詞。供應(yīng)與需求是使市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)的力量?，F(xiàn)代微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)就是研討供應(yīng)、需求與市場(chǎng)平衡的學(xué)科。WHATARECOSTS?AccordingtotheLawofSupply:Firmsarewillingtoproduceandsellagreaterquantityofagoodwhenthepriceofthegoodishigh.Thisresultsinasupplycurvethatslopesupward.什么是本錢?根據(jù)供應(yīng)規(guī)律:當(dāng)一種物品價(jià)錢高時(shí)，廠商情愿消費(fèi)和銷售的更多。這導(dǎo)致供應(yīng)曲線向上傾斜。WHATARECOSTS?TheFirm’sObjectiveTheeconomicgoalofthefirmistomaximizeprofits.MaximumProfits什么是本錢?企業(yè)的目的企業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)目的是利潤(rùn)最大化MaximumProfitsTotalRevenue,TotalCost,andprofit

總收入、總本錢與利潤(rùn)TotalRevenue總收入Theamountthatthefirmreceivesforthesaleofitsoutput.企業(yè)銷售產(chǎn)品所得TotalCost總本錢Themarketvalueoftheinputsafirmusesinproduction.企業(yè)用于消費(fèi)的投入要素的市場(chǎng)價(jià)值。AFirm’sProfit公司利潤(rùn)Profitisthefirm’stotalrevenueminusitstotalcost. Profit=Totalrevenue-Totalcost利潤(rùn)＝總收入－總本錢CostsasOpportunityCostsAfirm’scostofproductionincludesalltheopportunitycostsofmakingitsoutputofgoodsandservices.ExplicitandImplicitCostsAfirm’scostofproductionincludeexplicitcostsandimplicitcosts.Explicitcostsareinputcoststhatrequireadirectoutlayofmoneybythefirm.Implicitcostsareinputcoststhatdonotrequireanoutlayofmoneybythefirm.本錢是時(shí)機(jī)本錢一個(gè)企業(yè)的消費(fèi)本錢包括消費(fèi)物品與勞務(wù)量的一切時(shí)機(jī)本錢。顯性本錢和隱性本錢一個(gè)企業(yè)的消費(fèi)本錢包括顯性本錢與隱性本錢。顯性本錢—要求企業(yè)直接支付貨幣的投入要素本錢。隱性本錢—不要求企業(yè)支付貨幣的投入要素本錢。EconomicProfitversusAccountingProfitEconomistsmeasureafirm’seconomicprofitastotalrevenueminusalltheopportunitycosts(explicitandimplicit).Accountantsmeasuretheaccountingprofitasthefirm’stotalrevenueminusonlythefirm’sexplicitcosts.Inotherwords,theyignoretheimplicitcosts.經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤(rùn)與會(huì)計(jì)利潤(rùn)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家計(jì)量企業(yè)的經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤(rùn)，即企業(yè)的總收益減去消費(fèi)所銷售物品和勞務(wù)的一切時(shí)機(jī)本錢〔顯性的和隱性的〕。會(huì)計(jì)師計(jì)量企業(yè)的會(huì)計(jì)利潤(rùn)，即企業(yè)的總收益減去企業(yè)的顯性本錢。EconomicProfitversusAccountingProfit

經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤(rùn)與會(huì)計(jì)利潤(rùn)Whentotalrevenueexceedsbothexplicitandimplicitcosts,thefirmearnseconomicprofit.當(dāng)總收益大于顯性本錢和隱性本錢時(shí)，企業(yè)賺取經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤(rùn)。Economicprofitissmallerthanaccountingprofit.經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤(rùn)小于會(huì)計(jì)利潤(rùn)。EconomicProfitversusAccountingProfitRevenueTotalopportunitycostsHowanEconomistViewsaFirmExplicitcostsEconomicprofitImplicitcostsExplicitcostsAccountingprofitHowanAccountantViewsaFirmRevenue經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤(rùn)與會(huì)計(jì)利潤(rùn)收入一切機(jī)會(huì)本錢經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家如何看企業(yè)顯性本錢經(jīng)濟(jì)利潤(rùn)隱性本錢顯性本錢會(huì)計(jì)利潤(rùn)會(huì)計(jì)師如何看企業(yè)收入Table1AProductionFunctionandTotalCost:HungryHelen’sCookieFactoryCopyright?2004South-Western表1.消費(fèi)函數(shù)和總本錢：亨格瑞.海倫的糕點(diǎn)廠工人數(shù)量產(chǎn)出勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量工廠成本工人成本投入總成本012050905040$303030$01020$304050341201403020303030406070515010305080TheProductionFunction消費(fèi)函數(shù)Theproductionfunctionshowstherelationshipbetweenquantityofinputsusedtomakeagoodandthequantityofoutputofthatgood.消費(fèi)函數(shù)——用于消費(fèi)一種物品的投入量與該物品產(chǎn)量之間的關(guān)系。MarginalProduct邊沿產(chǎn)量Themarginalproductofanyinputintheproductionprocessistheincreaseinthequantityofoutputobtainedfromanadditionalunitofthatinput.任何一種消費(fèi)過(guò)程中的投入要素的邊沿產(chǎn)量是指添加一個(gè)單位的該要素投入所引起的產(chǎn)量添加。MarginalProduct邊沿產(chǎn)量Additionalinput投入添加量Additionaloutput=Marginalproduct邊沿產(chǎn)量產(chǎn)出添加量DiminishingMarginalProductDiminishingmarginalproductisthepropertywherebythemarginalproductofaninputdeclinesasthequantityoftheinputincreases.Example:Asmoreandmoreworkersarehiredatafirm,eachadditionalworkercontributeslessandlesstoproductionbecausethefirmhasalimitedamountofequipment.邊沿產(chǎn)量遞減邊沿產(chǎn)量遞減是指一種投入要素的邊沿產(chǎn)量隨著該要素投入量的添加而減少的特征。例子:由于雇傭的工人越來(lái)越多，每個(gè)新雇傭的工人對(duì)產(chǎn)量的奉獻(xiàn)越來(lái)越小，這是由于有限的設(shè)備數(shù)量不能將他的潛能發(fā)揚(yáng)出來(lái)。Figure2HungryHelen’sProductionFunctionQuantityofOutput(cookiesperhour)150140130120110100908070605040302010NumberofWorkersHired012345Productionfunction圖2.亨格瑞.海倫的消費(fèi)函數(shù)產(chǎn)量(cookiesperhour)150140130120110100908070605040302010雇傭工人數(shù)量012345消費(fèi)函數(shù)DiminishingMarginalProductTheslopeoftheproductionfunctionmeasuresthemarginalproductofaninput,suchasaworker.Whenthemarginalproductdeclines,theproductionfunctionbecomesflatter.邊沿產(chǎn)量遞減消費(fèi)函數(shù)的斜率衡量了一種投入要素〔比如一個(gè)工人〕的邊沿產(chǎn)量。隨著工人數(shù)量添加，邊沿產(chǎn)量減少，消費(fèi)函數(shù)越來(lái)越平坦。FromtheProductionFunctiontotheTotal-CostCurveTherelationshipbetweenthequantityafirmcanproduceanditscostsdeterminespricingdecisions.Thetotal-costcurveshowsthisrelationshipgraphically.從消費(fèi)函數(shù)到總本錢曲線一個(gè)企業(yè)能夠的消費(fèi)量和它的本錢之間的關(guān)系決議了它的產(chǎn)品定價(jià)。用來(lái)闡明消費(fèi)產(chǎn)量和消費(fèi)總本錢之間關(guān)系的圖被稱為總本錢曲線。Table1AProductionFunctionandTotalCost:HungryHelen’sCookieFactoryCopyright?2004South-Western表1.消費(fèi)函數(shù)和總本錢亨格瑞.海倫的糕點(diǎn)廠工人數(shù)量產(chǎn)出勞動(dòng)的邊際產(chǎn)量工廠成本工人成本投入總成本012050905040$303030$01020$304050341201403020303030406070515010305080Figure3HungryHelen’sTotal-CostCurve

圖3.亨格瑞.海倫的總本錢曲線Totalcost總本錢$8070605040302010QuantityofOutput產(chǎn)量(cookiesperhour)020401401201008060Total-costCurve總本錢曲線TheVariousMeasuresofCost

本錢的各種衡量Costsofproductionmaybedividedintofixedcostsandvariablecosts.消費(fèi)本錢可以分為固定本錢和可變本錢。FixedandVariableCostsFixedcostsarethosecoststhatdonotvarywiththequantityofoutputproduced.Variablecostsarethosecoststhatdochangeasthefirmaltersthequantityofoutputproduced.固定本錢和變動(dòng)本錢固定本錢不隨著產(chǎn)量變動(dòng)而變動(dòng)的本錢?？勺儽惧X隨著產(chǎn)量變動(dòng)而變動(dòng)的本錢。TotalCosts總本錢TotalFixedCosts(TFC)總固定本錢〔TFC〕TotalVariableCosts(TVC)總可變本錢〔TVC〕TotalCosts(TC)總本錢(TC)TC=TFC+TVCTable2TheVariousMeasuresofCost:ThirstyThelma’sLemonadeStandCopyright?2004South-WesternTable2TheVariousMeasuresofCost:ThirstyThelma’sLemonadeStandQuantityTotalCostFixedCostVariableCost0$3.00$3.00$0.0013.303.000.3023.803.000.8034.503.001.5045.403.002.4056.503.003.5067.803.004.8079.303.006.30811.003.008.00912.903.009.901015.003.0012.00表2.本錢的各種衡量：索斯蒂.特爾瑪?shù)臋幟仕陻?shù)量總本錢固定本錢可變本錢0$3.00$3.00$0.0013.303.000.3023.803.000.8034.503.001.5045.403.002.4056.503.003.5067.803.004.8079.303.006.30811.003.008.00912.903.009.901015.003.0012.00AverageCosts平均本錢Averagecostscanbedeterminedbydividingthefirm’scostsbythequantityofoutputproduced.平均本錢：總本錢除以產(chǎn)量。Theaveragecostisthecostofeachtypicalunitofproduct.平均本錢是消費(fèi)一個(gè)普通單位的本錢。FamilyofAverageCosts平均本錢AverageFixedCosts(AFC)平均固定本錢(AFC)AverageVariableCosts(AVC)平均可變本錢(AVC)AverageTotalCosts(ATC)平均總本錢(ATC)ATC=AFC+AVCFamilyofAverageCosts平均本錢$3.00Table2TheVariousMeasuresofCost:ThirstyThelma’sLemonadeStandQuantityAFCAVCATC0———1$0.30$3.3021.500.401.9031.000.501.5040.750.601.3550.600.701.3060.500.801.3070.430.901.3380.381.001.3890.331.101.43100.301.201.50$3.00表2.本錢的各種衡量：索斯蒂.特爾瑪?shù)臋幟仕戤a(chǎn)量AFCAVCATC0———1$0.30$3.3021.500.401.9031.000.501.5040.750.601.3550.600.701.3060.500.801.3070.430.901.3380.381.001.3890.331.101.43100.301.201.50MarginalCostMarginalcost(MC)measurestheamounttotalcostriseswhenthefirmincreasesproductionbyoneunit.Marginalcosthelpsanswerthefollowingquestion: Howmuchdoesitcosttoproduceanadditionalunitofoutput?邊沿本錢邊沿本錢(MC)衡量額外一個(gè)單位產(chǎn)量所引起的總本錢的添加。邊沿本錢協(xié)助回答以下問(wèn)題： 消費(fèi)額外一個(gè)單位產(chǎn)量的本錢是多少？MarginalCost邊沿本錢MarginalCost：ThirstyThelma’sLemonadeStand邊沿本錢：索斯蒂.特爾瑪?shù)臋幟仕闒igure4ThirstyThelma’sTotal-CostCurvesTotalCost$15.0014.0013.0012.0011.0010.009.008.007.006.005.004.003.002.001.00QuantityofOutput(glassesoflemonadeperhour)014327659810Total-costcurve圖4.索斯蒂.特爾瑪?shù)目偙惧X曲線總本錢$15.0014.0013.0012.0011.0010.009.008.007.006.005.004.003.002.001.00產(chǎn)量(每小時(shí)檸檬水杯數(shù))014327659810總本錢曲線Figure5ThirstyThelma’sAverage-CostandMarginal-CostCurvesCosts$3.503.253.002.752.502.252.001.751.501.251.000.750.500.25QuantityofOutput(glassesoflemonadeperhour)014327659810MCATCAVCAFC圖5.索斯蒂.特爾瑪?shù)钠骄惧X和邊沿本錢曲線本錢$3.503.253.002.752.502.252.001.751.501.251.000.750.500.25產(chǎn)量(每小時(shí)檸檬水杯數(shù))014327659810MCATCAVCAFCCostCurvesandTheirShapes

本錢曲線及其外形Marginalcostriseswiththeamountofoutputproduced.邊沿本錢隨著產(chǎn)量添加而上升。Marginalcost邊沿本錢Thisreflectsthepropertyofdiminishingmarginalproduct.邊沿本錢遞增反映了邊沿產(chǎn)量遞減的性質(zhì)Figure5ThirstyThelma’sAverage-CostandMarginal-CostCurvesCosts$3.503.253.002.752.502.252.001.751.501.251.000.750.500.25QuantityofOutput(glassesoflemonadeperhour)014327659810MC圖5.索斯蒂.特爾瑪?shù)钠骄惧X和邊沿本錢曲線本錢$3.503.253.002.752.502.252.001.751.501.251.000.750.500.25產(chǎn)量(每小時(shí)檸檬水杯數(shù)〕014327659810MCCostCurvesandTheirShapesTheaveragetotal-costcurveisU-shaped.Atverylowlevelsofoutputaveragetotalcostishighbecausefixedcostisspreadoveronlyafewunits.Averagetotalcostdeclinesasoutputincreases.Averagetotalcoststartsrisingbecauseaveragevariablecostrisessubstantially.本錢曲線及其外形平均總本錢曲線是U型的。在產(chǎn)量程度極低時(shí)，平均總本錢高，這是由于固定本錢只分?jǐn)傇谏贁?shù)幾個(gè)單位產(chǎn)品上。平均總本錢隨著產(chǎn)量添加而降低。當(dāng)平均可變本錢大幅度上升時(shí)，平均總本錢開(kāi)場(chǎng)添加。CostCurvesandTheirShapes

本錢曲線及其外形ThebottomoftheU-shapeoccursatthequantitythatminimizesaveragetotalcost.Thisquantityissometimescalledtheefficientscaleofthefirm.在使平均總本錢最小的產(chǎn)量時(shí)，U型曲線的底部就出現(xiàn)了。這種產(chǎn)量有時(shí)被稱為企業(yè)的有效規(guī)模。Figure5ThirstyThelma’sAverage-CostandMarginal-CostCurvesCosts$3.503.253.002.752.502.252.001.751.501.251.000.750.500.25QuantityofOutput(glassesoflemonadeperhour)014327659810ATC圖5.索斯蒂.特爾瑪?shù)钠骄惧X和邊沿本錢曲線本錢$3.503.253.002.752.502.252.001.751.501.251.000.750.500.25產(chǎn)量(每小時(shí)檸檬水杯數(shù))014327659810ATCRelationshipBetweenMarginalCostandAverageTotalCostWhenevermarginalcostislessthanaveragetotalcost,averagetotalcostisfalling.Whenevermarginalcostisgreaterthanaveragetotalcost,averagetotalcostisrising.邊沿本錢和平均總本錢之間的關(guān)系只需邊沿本錢小于平均總本錢，平均總本錢就下降。只需邊沿本錢大于平均總本錢，平均總本錢就上升。RelationshipBetweenMarginalCostandAverageTotalCostThemarginal-costcurvecrossestheaverage-total-costcurveattheefficientscale.Efficientscaleisthequantitythatminimizesaveragetotalcost.邊沿本錢和平均總本錢之間的關(guān)系邊沿本錢曲線與平均總本錢曲線相交于有效規(guī)模時(shí)。有效規(guī)?！蛊骄偙惧X最小的產(chǎn)量。MCATCRelationshipBetweenMarginalCostandAverageTotalCost$0.00$0.50$1.00$1.50$2.00$2.50$3.00$3.50024681012QuantityofOutput(glassesoflemonadeperhour)CostsMCATC邊沿本錢和平均總本錢之間的關(guān)系$0.00$0.50$1.00$1.50$2.00$2.50$3.00$3.50024681012產(chǎn)量(每小時(shí)檸檬水杯數(shù))本錢邊沿本錢平均總本錢TypicalCostCurves

典型的本錢曲線Itisnowtimetoexaminetherelationshipsthatexistbetweenthedifferentmeasuresofcost.如今討論一下不同衡量方式的本錢之間的關(guān)系。BigBob’sCostCurves大鮑伯的本錢曲線Figure6BigBob’sCostCurves(a)Total-CostCurve$18.0016.0014.0012.0010.008.006.004.00QuantityofOutput(bagelsperhour)TC42681412102.00TotalCost0圖6.大鮑伯的本錢曲線(a)總本錢曲線$18.0016.0014.0012.0010.008.006.004.00產(chǎn)量(每小時(shí)百吉圈)TC42681412102.00總本錢0Figure6BigBob’sCostCurves(b)Marginal-andAverage-CostCurvesQuantityofOutput(bagelsperhour)Costs$3.002.502.001.501.000.5004268141210MCATCAVCAFC圖6.大鮑伯的本錢曲線(b)邊沿和平均本錢曲線本錢$3.002.502.001.501.000.5004268141210MCATCAVCAFC產(chǎn)量(每小時(shí)百吉圈)TypicalCostCurvesThreeImportantPropertiesofCostCurvesMarginalcosteventuallyriseswiththequantityofoutput.Theaverage-total-costcurveisU-shaped.Themarginal-costcurvecrossestheaverage-total-costcurveattheminimumofaveragetotalcost.典型的本錢曲線本錢曲線的三個(gè)重要特征隨著產(chǎn)量添加，邊沿本錢最終要上升。平均總本錢曲線是U型的。邊沿本錢曲線與平均總本錢曲線在平均總本錢最低點(diǎn)相交。COSTSINTHESHORTRUNANDINTHELONGRUNFormanyfirms,thedivisionoftotalcostsbetweenfixedandvariablecostsdependsonthetimehorizonbeingconsidered.Intheshortrunsomecostsarefixed.Inthelongrunfixedcostsbecomevariablecosts.短期與長(zhǎng)期本錢對(duì)許多企業(yè)來(lái)說(shuō)，總本錢分為固定和可變本錢取決于所調(diào)查的時(shí)間長(zhǎng)短。在短期中一些本錢是固定的。在長(zhǎng)期中本錢都是可變的。COSTSINTHESHORTRUNAND

INTHELONGRUN

短期與長(zhǎng)期本錢Becausemanycostsarefixedintheshortrunbutvariableinthelongrun,afirm’slong-runcostcurvesdifferfromitsshort-runcostcurves.由于許多本錢在短期中是固定的，但在長(zhǎng)期中是可變的，所以企業(yè)的長(zhǎng)期本錢曲線不同于其短期本錢曲線。Figure7AverageTotalCostintheShort

andLongRunQuantityofCarsperDay0AverageTotalCost1,200$12,000ATCinshortrunwithsmallfactoryATCinshortrunwithmediumfactoryATCinshortrunwithlargefactoryATCinlongrun圖7.短期與長(zhǎng)期的平均本錢Copyright?2004South-Western每天汽車產(chǎn)量01,200$12,000

小型工廠短期ATC

中型工廠短期ATC

大型工廠短期ATC長(zhǎng)期ATC平均總本錢EconomiesandDiseconomiesofScaleEconomiesofscaleoccurwhenlong-runaveragetotalcostdeclinesasoutputincreases.Diseconomiesofscaleoccurwhenlong-runaveragetotalcostrisesasoutputincreases.Constantreturnstoscaleoccurwhenlong-runaveragetotalcostdoesnotvaryasoutputincreases.規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)與規(guī)模不經(jīng)濟(jì)當(dāng)長(zhǎng)期平均總本錢隨著產(chǎn)量添加而減少時(shí)，可以說(shuō)存在規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)。當(dāng)長(zhǎng)期平均總本錢隨著產(chǎn)量添加而添加時(shí)，可以說(shuō)存在規(guī)模不經(jīng)濟(jì)。當(dāng)長(zhǎng)期平均總本錢不隨著產(chǎn)量變動(dòng)而變動(dòng)時(shí)，可以說(shuō)存在規(guī)模收益不變。Figure7AverageTotalCostintheShort

andLongRunQuantityofCarsperDay0AverageTotalCost1,200$12,0001,00010,000EconomiesofscaleATCinshortrunwithsmallfactoryATCinshortrunwithmediumfactoryATCinshortrunwithlargefactoryATCinlongrunDiseconomiesofscaleConstantreturnstoscale圖7.短期與長(zhǎng)期的平均總本錢每天汽車產(chǎn)量01,200$12,0001,00010,000規(guī)模經(jīng)濟(jì)

小型工廠短期ATC

中型工廠短期ATC

大型工廠短期ATC長(zhǎng)期ATC規(guī)模不經(jīng)濟(jì)規(guī)模收益不變t平均總本錢SummaryThegoaloffirmsistomaximize