RomanCulture

ContentsRomansandGreeksRomanHistoryLatinLiteratureArchitecture,PaintingandSculptureRomansandGreeksTheSimilarities&DifferencesbetweenRomansandGreeksTheBattleofCorinth

ItwasabattlefoughtbetweentheRomanRepublicandtheGreekstateofCorinthanditsalliesintheAchaeanLeaguein146BC,thatresultedinthecompleteandtotaldestructionofthestateofCorinthwhichwaspreviouslysofamousforitsfabulouswealth.TheBattleofCorinth

TheRomansunderLuciusMummiusdestroyedCorinthfollowingasiegein146BC;whenheenteredthecity,Mummiusputallthementotheswordandsoldthewomenandchildrenintoslaverybeforehetorchedthecity.

Fromthistimeon,LatinwasthelanguageofthewesternhalfoftheRomanEmpire,Greekthatoftheeasternhalf.Language

TheRomanEmpirelastedformorethanathousandyears,sotherewasplentyoftimetoproducealotofwriting.LatinwasoneoftheIndo-EuropeanlanguagefamilywhichstretchesfromBangladeshtoIceland.ItwaswritteninanalphabetderivedfromtheGreekalphabet,withsomeletterschanged.ReligionTheirreligionswerealikeenoughformostoftheirdeitiestobereadilyidentified.LiketheGreeks,foralongtimetheRomansbelievedinmanydifferentgodsandgoddesses.Theythoughttheywereallpartofafamilyandpeopletoldstoriesormythsaboutthem.Eachgodorgoddesslookedafterdifferentpeopleorthings:storms,theocean,marriage,blacksmithing,andsoforth.Religion

Thechiefofthegods,fortheRomans,wasJupiter.HisnameisrelatedtothenameoftheGreekgodZeus,andJupiterissimilartoZeusinmanyways.ZeusinGreekmythologywasthekingofthegods,therulerofMountOlympusandthegodoftheskyandthunder.JupiterinRomanmythologywasthekingofthegods,andthegodofskyandthunder.

Aphrodite

inGreekmythologywasthegoddessoflove,beautyandsexualrapture.Venus

wasamajorRomangoddessprincipallyassociatedwithlove,beautyandfertility.Bothpeopleshadtraditionsrootedintheideaofthecitizen-assembly,hostiletomonarchyandtoservility.Democracy

Differencesbetween

RomansandGreeks

TheRomanswereparticularlyinterestedinpower,andmuchlessinterestedinbalancethantheGreeks.Therewasonebigdifference.TheRomansbuiltupavastempire:theGreeksdidn’t,exceptforthebriefmomentofAlexander’sconquests,whichsoondisintegrated.

TheRomanswereconfidentintheirownorganizationalpower,theirmilitaryandadministrativecapabilities.TheGreeksenjoyedanartisticandintellectualinheritance.ButtheRomansrespectedthisinheritanceandassimilateditfortheartisticenrichmentoftheirownculture.GeographyBothGreeceandRomeareMediterraneancountries,buttheterrainofthetwoisverydifferent.TheancientGreek

city-stateswereseparatedfromeachotherbyhillycountrysideandallwerenearthewater.

Romewasinland,ononesideoftheTiberRiver,buttheItalictribes(nowisItaly)didnothavethenaturalhillyborderstokeepthemoutofRome.Thereweretwonearbymountainrangestothenorth(Alps)andeast(Apennines).Art-Greecevs.RomeGreekartisconsideredsuperiortoRomanart.ThegoaloftheclassicalGreeksculptorswastoproduceanidealartisticform.ThegoalofRomanartistswastoproducerealisticportraits

fordecoration.

Government-Athensvs.RomeTheAthenianswereoriginallygovernedbykings,thenbyanoligarchy,andthenbydemocracy(votingbythecitizens).TheRomanswereoriginallygovernedbykings,thenbyamixedRepublicanform,andthenbyemperors.RomanHistoryFoundingoftheCity

Romewasfoundedin753BCbyRomulusandRemus,whowereraisedbyashe-wolf.PeriodofKings:753-510B.C.Fromthe8thto6thC.B.C.,Romewasruledbysevenkings.Whenapalacecoupremovedtheking

Tarquin

theProud

in509B.C.,Romansdevelopedahatredforthewordking,thereforeaRomanRepublicwasproclaimed.PeriodofRepublic:510-27B.C.

Inordertoguardagainstanyfutureautocraticruler,asystembasedonannuallyelectedmagistratesandvariousrepresentativeassemblieswasestablished.Aconstitutionsetaseriesofchecksandbalances,andaseparationofpowers.

Themagistracieswereoriginallyrestrictedtopatricians,butwerelateropenedtocommonpeople.Themostimportantmagistrateswerethetwoconsuls.TheygotadvicefromtheSenate.theRepublicanvotingassembliesincludedthecomitiacenturiata

andthecomitiatributa.RomanGovernmentSenate(300members)Consuls(2members)HeadofGovernmentTribune(10members)PatricianPatrician&PlebianPlebianAppointedElectedElectedHoldofficeforlifeHoldofficefor1yearHoldofficefor1yearAdviseConsulsControltreasuryandforeignpolicyHeadjudiciary&militaryEachcouldveto(“Iforbid”)theotherInitiatelawsVetoSenatecomitiacenturiatacomitiatributaTheAssembliesPunicWars

Alongwiththereforminpolitics,Romebeganitsexpansion.By274BC,theRomanshadtakenoverallofItaly.ThegreatestchallengetheRomanRepublicfacedwasthatoftheCarthaginians.CarthagewasaverypowerfulcityinNorthAfricawhich,muchlikeRome,controlleditsownempire.Thefightbetweenthetwosideswasalongoneandtookplaceonlandandonsea.

Inthesecondhalfofthe3rd.CenturyB.C.,aGreekcityaskedtheRomanstohelpitoutinawar.ThiscitywasinSicily,abigislandnearItalyintheMediterraneanSea.AtfirsttheRomanslost,becausetheyweren’tgoodatsailing.ButintheendRomansbeattheCarthaginiansandwonthefirstPunicwarandoccupiedSicily.In219B.C.,RomanarmygettingintoSpainbeganthesecondPunicWar.ThegreatCarthaginiangeneralHannibalcrossedthemountainchainoftheAlpstothenorthofItalywithallhistroops,includinghiswar-elephants,andinvadedItaly.In202B.CRomeWonthefinalvictoryandgotCorsica,Sardinia&moreHannibal’srouteResultsofthePunicWars

AfterthePunicWars,RomanTraitsofdiscipline,courage,hardwork,honesty&simplicitybasedonanagrarianlifestyleseemedtohavebeenlost.Therewasunemployment,dislocation,poverty,corruption,crime&lazinessasmanydiscontentedpeoplemovedtoRome.ServileWars(2nd.C-1st.C.B.C.)__Revoltofslaves,Spartacus(73-71B.C.)JuliusCaesar

Inthemid-1stcenturyBC,threemen,JuliusCaesar,Pompey,andCrassus,formedasecretpact—theFirstTriumvirate—tocontroltheRepublic.AfterCaesar'sconquestofGaul,astand-offbetweenCaesarandtheSenateledtocivilwar,withPompeyleadingtheSenate'sforces.Caesaremergedvictorious,andwasmadedictatorforlife.ThesenatorsencircleCaesarThesecondTriumvirate:

Lepidus,Antony,Octavian

In44BC,CaesarwasassassinatedbysenatorswhoopposedCaesar'sassumptionofabsolutepowerandwantedtorestoreconstitutionalgovernment.However,thisalliancesoondescendedintoastrugglefordominance.TheAssassinationofCaesarPeriodofEmpire

27B.C.–476A.D.–1453AftertheassassinationofGaiusJuliusCaesarin44B.C.,Romedescendedintomorethantenyearsofcivilwarandpoliticalupheaval.AfterCaesar'sheirGaius

Octavius(alsoknownasOctavian)defeatedhislastrivals,theSenateproclaimedhimAugustus(27B.C.),meaningtheexaltedorholyone.InthiswayAugustusestablishedthemonarchythatbecameknownastheRomanEmpire.Empire

Augustusassumedalmostabsolutepower,retainingonlyapretenseoftheRepublicanformofgovernment.

TheJulio-Claudian(30BC-68AD)TheFlavian(69-192)TheSeverans(193-235)TheThirdCenturyCrisisConstantinefamily(312-363)TheTheodosian(363-450)TheFalloftheEmpirePax

Romana

(27BC-180AD)1）Intheyear27B.C.OctaviustooksupremepowerasemperorwiththetileofAugustus.2)Twocenturieslater,theRomanempirereacheditsgreatestextentintheNorthandEast.3)Theemperorsmainlyreliedonastrongarmy-thefamousRomanLegionsandaninfluentialbureaucracytoexerttheirrules.4)ThustheRomanenjoyedalongperiodofpeacelasting200years.ThisremarkablephenomenoninthehistoryisknownasPax

Romana.CrisisoftheThirdCenturyTheperiodbetween193ADand235ADsawseveralincompetentrulers.ThisandtheincreasinginfluenceofthearmyonimperialsuccessionledtoalongperiodofimperialcollapseandexternalinvasionsknownastheCrisisoftheThirdCentury.ConstantineI

TheThirdCenturyCrisiswasendedbythemorecompetentruleofDiocletian,whoin293ADdividedtheEmpireintoaneasternandwestern.(Diocletian’sTetrarchy)

EmperorConstantineIfirmlyestablishedByzantiumasthecapitaloftheRomanEmpireandrenameditConstantinople(324AD).TheArchofConstantineTheEmpirewaspermanentlydividedintotheEasternRomanEmpireandtheWesternRomanEmpirein395AD.TheWesternEmpirewasconstantlyharassedbyinvasions.Havinglastedforabout1200years,theruleofRomeintheWestcametoanendin476ADwiththesackingofRomebytheGoths.TheEasternEmpire,bycontrast,wouldsufferasimilarfate,thoughnotasdrastic.TheEasternEmpireendedalmostamillenniumlaterwhenConstantinoplefelltotheTurksin1453.

RomanEmpirelastedfornearlyfivecenturies.AtitspeaktheempireincludedlandsthroughouttheMediterraneanworld.TheempirelasteduntilGermanicinvasions,economicdecline,andinternalunrestinthe4thand5thcenturies.TheRomansandtheirempiregaveculturalandpoliticalshapetothesubsequenthistoryofEuropefromtheMiddleAgesandtheRenaissancetothepresentday.RomanLaws

TherootsofthelegalprinciplesandpracticesoftheancientRomansmaybetracedtothelawoftheTwelveTablestothecodificationofEmperorJustinianI.RomanlawaspreservedinJustinian'sCodescontinuedintotheByzantineEmpire,andformedthebasisofsimilarcodificationsinWesternEurope.

494BC:Plebianswantedequalrights;willingtocauseunrestifdemandsnotmet6thCenturyBC:Plebianscomplainedaboutunwrittenlaws–gavePatricianstheupperhand450BC:TwelveTablesfinalised;basisforRomanLawformanycenturiesExamplesoflaws:BothaccuserandaccusedmustappearincourtSpecificpunishmentsforspecificcrimesDeathpenaltyforcorruptjudges,perjurers,traitors

Romanlawcontinued,inabroadersense,tobeappliedthroughoutmostofEuropeuntiltheendofthe17thcentury.Short–termImpact:PreventingPatriciansfromarbitrarilychanginglawstosuitthemselvesLong-termimpact:conceptofneedtoprotecthumanrightsLatinLiteratureContents

◆BriefIntroductionoftheLatinLiterature◆LatinProse◆LatinPoetryLatinLiterature

Latinliterature,thebodyofwrittenworksintheLatinlanguage,remainsanenduringlegacyofthecultureofancientRome.

LatinLiteratureTheRomansproducedmanyworksofpoetry,comedy,tragedy,satire,history,andrhetoric,drawingheavilyonthetraditionsofotherculturesandparticularlyonthemorematuredliterarytraditionofGreece.LongaftertheWesternRomanEmpirehadfallen,theLatinlanguagecontinuedtoplayacentralroleinwesternEuropeancivilization.

LatinProse

MarcusTulliusCicerowasaRomanstatesman,lawyer,politicaltheorist,philosopher,andRomanconstitutionalist

(1)

.CiceroiswidelyconsideredoneofRome'sgreatestoratorsandprosestylists.Ciceroisgenerallyperceivedtobeoneofthemostversatile

(2)mindsofancientRome.

Ciceronian

(eloquent,oratorical)

MarcusTulliusCicero

(Jan3,106BC—Dec7,43BC)CicerointroducedtheRomanstothechiefschoolsofGreekphilosophyandcreatedaLatinphilosophicalvocabulary,distinguishinghimselfasalinguist,translator,andphilosopher.DeRepublicaDeLegibus“Thegoodofpeopleisthechieflaw”.(最大的法律即人性的善良）

Commentaries(《高盧戰(zhàn)記》)，Caesar’srecordingofwhathedidandsawinthevariousmilitarycampaignshetookpartin,isamodelofsuccinctLatin.

Veni,vidi,vici--Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.JuliusCaesarLatinPoetry

LatinpoetrywasamajorpartofLatinliteratureduringtheheightoftheLatinlanguage.DuringLatinliterature‘sGoldenAge,mostofthegreatliteraturewaswritteninpoetry,includingworksbyVirgil,Catullus,andHorace

（Odes,頌歌集).

PubliusVergiliusMaro

PubliusVergiliusMarowasaclassicalRomanpoet,betterknownbytheAnglicisedformofhisnameasVirgilorVergil.HisthreemajorworksaretheBucolics(orEclogues),

theGeorgicsandtheAeneid.HewasregardedasoneofRome'sgreatestpoets,andtheAeneidRome'snationalepic.(Oct15,70BC–Sep

21,19BC)Aeneid

TheAeneid

isaLatinepicpoemwrittenbyVirgilinthe1stcenturyBC(between29and19BC)thattellsthelegendarystoryofAeneas,aTrojanwhotraveledtoItaly,wherehebecametheancestoroftheRomans.BoxingscenefromtheAeneid(book5)

TheheroAeneaswasalreadyknowntoGreco-Romanlegendandmyth,havingbeenacharacterintheIliad;VirgiltookthedisconnectedtalesofAeneas'wanderings,hisvagueassociationwiththefoundationofRomeandapersonageofnofixedcharacteristicsotherthanascrupulouspiety,andfashionedthisintoacompellingfoundingmythornationalistepicthatatoncetiedRometothelegendsofTroy,glorifiedtraditionalRomanvirtuesandlegitimizedtheJulio-Claudiandynastyasdescendantsofthefounders,heroesandgodsofRomeandTroy.(AeneasfleesburningTroy,FedericoBarocci,1598GalleriaBorghese,Rome)(folio22fromtheVergiliusVaticanus-flightfromTroy)(Romanbas-relief,2ndcentury:AeneaslandsinLatium,leadingAscanius;thesowidentifiestheplacetofoundhiscity(Book6))Architecture,SculptureandPaintingArchitecture

TheArchitectureofAncientRomeadoptedtheexternalGreekarchitecturefortheirownpurposes,whichweresodifferentfromGreekbuildingsastocreateanewarchitecturalstyle.Thetwostylesareoftenconsideredonebodyofclassicalarchitecture.Thisapproachisconsideredreproductive.

SocialelementssuchaswealthandhighpopulationdensitiesincitiesforcedtheancientRomanstodiscovernew(architectural)solutionsoftheirown.Theuseofvaultsandarches

togetherwithasoundknowledgeofbuildingmaterialsproducedtheaqueducts

ofRome,thebasilicasandperhapsmostfamouslyofall,theColosseum.TheywerereproducedatsmallerscaleinmostimportanttownsandcitiesintheEmpire.TheColosseuminRome,Italy.RomanColosseum

Politicalpropagandademandedthatthesebuildingsshouldbemadetoimpressaswellasperformapublicfunction.ThePantheon

isasupremeexampleofthis,particularlyintheversionrebuiltbyHadrianandwhichstillstandsinitscelestialgloryasaprototypeofseveralothergreatbuildingsofEasternarchitecture.PantheonTemplededicatedtoallthegodsTheinteriorofthePantheoninthe18thcentury,showingtheconcretedomeThesameemperorlefthismarkonthelandscapeofnorthernBritainwhenhebuiltawalltomarkthelimitsoftheempire,andafterfurtherconquestsinScotland,theAntoninewall

(142AD)wasbuilttoreplaceHadrian'sWall

(122-128AD).RomanarenaatArles,insideview.

TowerofHerculessculpture

TraditionalRomansculptureisdividedintofivecategories:portraiture,historicalrelief,funeraryreliefs,sarcophagi,andcopiesofancientGreekworks.RomansculpturewasheavilyinfluencedbyGreekexamples,inparticulartheirbronzes.

ItisonlythankstosomeRomancopiesthataknowledgeofGreekoriginalsispreserved.OneexampleofthisisattheBritishMuseum,whereanintact2ndcenturyA.D.RomancopyofastatueofVenusisdisplayed,whileasimilaroriginal500B.C.GreekstatueattheLouvreismissingherarms.SarcophaguswithbattlescenebetweenRomansandGermans.Marble,Romanartwork,180–190AD

AstatueofOctavian,c.30BCTrajan'sColumn

Trajan'sColumndetailOriginalstatueofMarcusAurelius

Preparationofananimalsacrifice;marble,fragmentofanarchitecturalrelief,firstquarterofthe2ndcenturyAD;fromRome,ItalyBustofAntinous,c.130AD

Painting

OurknowledgeofAncientRomanpaintingreliesinlargepartonthepreservationofartifactsfromPompeiiandHerculanum,andparticularlythePompeianmuralpainting,whichwaspreservedaftertheeruptionofVesuviusin79A.D.NothingremainsoftheGreekpaintingsimportedtoRomeduringthe4thand5thcenturies,orofthepaintingonwooddoneinItalyduringthatperiod.Insum,therangeofsamplesisconfinedtoonlyabout200yearsoutoftheabout900yearsofRomanhistory.Pompeii[p?m'pei

]龐培(意大利那不勒斯附近一古城)Herculanum赫庫蘭尼姆

Mostofthiswallpaintingwasdoneusingthedrymethod,butsomefrescopaintingsalsoexistedinRomantimes.ThereisevidencefrommosaicsandafewinscriptionsthatsomeRomanpaintingswereadaptationsorcopiesofearlierGreekworks.However,addingtotheconfusionisthefactthatinscriptionsmayberecordingthenamesofimmigrantGreekartistsfromRomantimes,notfromAncientGreekoriginalsthatwerecopied.Fresco:['fresk?u]濕壁畫PompeianpainterwithpaintedstatueandframedpaintingPompeiiSOCIALLIFERomanAqueductThisEngineeringaccomplishmentbroughtwatertoRomancities.Builtfromstone,brickandspecialvolcaniccementpozzuolanaSource:/culture/roman-aqueducts.phpOnlysmallproportionofaqueductsystemconsistsofarchedstructuresBuiltonlyinareaswheredigging,burrowing,orsurfacegradespresentproblems,eg.valleysTheentiresystemrelieduponvariousgradientsandtheuseofgravitytomaintainacontinuousflowRomanAqueductAqueductofSegovia

Romanroadswell-knownforbeingstraightandwell-madeDespitethis,roadsbuiltroundobstaclesratherthanthroughitUsedfortradeaswellasmilitarypurposesAtitspeak,roadsystemspanned85,000kilometresSource:/romeroads.htmlRoadsAppianWayAfamousRomanroad;oneofRome’sengineeringaccomplishmentForumForumTemples&governmentbuildingsPlatformforpublicspeakingattheRomanForumRomanBathBathsofCaracallaThegloriousBathsofCaracallaarenowruins.Source:/wgbh/nova/lostempires/roman/dayleft.html1.Entrance|2.Toilets|3.Palaestra|4.Apodyterium|5.Tepidarium6.Caldarium7.Frigidarium|8.Entertainment|9.Art|10.Food&Al