UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

DevelopmentDimensionsofDrugPolicy:

AssessingNewChallenges,

UncoveringOpportunities,andAddressingEmergingIssues

TheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)istheleadingUnitedNationsorganization?ghtingtoendtheinjusticeofpoverty,inequality,andclimatechange.Workingwithourbroadnetworkofexpertsandpartnersin170countries,wehelpnationstobuildintegrated,lastingsolutionsforpeopleandplanet.Learnmoreat

orfollowat@UNDP.

TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationdonotnecessarilyrepresentthoseofthemembercountriesoftheUNDPExecutiveBoardorofthoseinstitutionsoftheUnitedNationssystemthatarementionedherein.

Thedesignationsandterminologyemployed,andthepresentationofmaterialdonotimplyanyexpressionoropinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorarea,orofitsauthorities,orofitsfrontiersorboundaries.

Thephotographsusedinthisdocumentaredrawnfromfreesourcesandareintendedsolelyforillustrativepurposes;theydonotimplyendorsementorre?ecto代cialpositions.

Copyright?UNDP2025.Allrightsreserved.

Coverphoto:?ILO/ilkinEskipehlivan

OneUnitedNationsPlaza,NewYork,NY10017,USA

TableofContents

Contents3

4

Acronymsandabbreviations6

Acknowledgements7

Executivesummary9

Introduction17

Economicdevelopmentandsustainablelivelihoods21

Alternativedevelopment:anevolvingparadigm22

Managingatransitiontoregulatedmarkets23

Embeddingequityandsocialjusticeinpolicydesign24

Governance31

reformandthechallengeofillicitmarkets32

health39

Structuraldriversofdrug-relatedharms41

warondrugsandtheresponsetoHIVandco-infections42

healthimpactsofdrugpolicyreform46

rights57

Humanrightsrationaleforresponsibleregulation60

righttoprivacyandpersonalautonomy61

ofIndigenousPeoples62

righttohealth64

Humanrightsprotectionsforlicitmarkets64

Environmentaldimensionsofdrugeconomies69

Secondaryenvironmentalharmsofillegaldrugsmarkets72

forward81

considerations85

4

DevelopmentDimensionsofDrugPolicy

Glossary

Internationaldrugcontrolinstitutions

TheCommissiononNarcoticDrugs(CND)istheUnitedNationsMemberStatebodychargedwithsupervisingtheapplicationoftheinternationaldrugpolicy.TheCNDisafunctionalcommissionoftheEconomicandSocialCouncil(ECOSOC).

TheUnitedNationsO代ceonDrugsandCrime(UNODC)undertakessubstantiveworkondrugcontrolandactsastheSecretariatfortheCNDandfortheInternationalNarcoticsControlBoard(INCB).

InternationalNarcoticsControlBoard(INCB)isthequasi-judicialindependentexpertcommitteecreatedbythe1961SingleConventiononNarcoticDrugstomonitorimplementationoftheconventions,andthecultivation,production,manufactureanduseofscheduleddrugstotheamountrequiredformedicalandscienti?cpurposes.

TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)isatreatybodymandatedtomakerecommendationsfortheschedulingofdrugsthroughtheExpertCommitteeonDrugDependenceandalsonominatesrelevantexpertsforelectionforthreeseatsontheINCB.

Thethreeinternationaldrugcontrolconventions

SingleConventiononNarcoticDrugs(1961)asamendedbythe1972ProtocolAmendingtheSingleConventiononNarcoticDrugs

ConventiononPsychotropicSubstances(1971)

ConventionagainstIllicitTra代cinNarcoticDrugsandPsychotropicSubstances(1988).

TheSingleConventionlistscontrolledsubstancesaccordingtotheirperceivedtherapeuticvalueandliabilityforabuse.TheConventiononPsychotropicSubstancestreatyextendsthescopeofdrugcontroltoincludesyntheticdrugsandintroducesmore?exibilityforcontrolofdrugsformedicalusesintothecontrolsystem.TheConventionagainstIllicitTra代cmandatesincreasesinternationallawenforcementandstrongerdomesticcriminallegislationwithinthenationallegalframeworkofsovereignstates.Allthreeconventionsprovidefor“alternativestopunishment”forpeoplewhousedrugs.

Licit/illicitdrugs

Theinternationaldrugcontrolconventionsdonotdistinguishbetweenlicitandillicitdrugs.Thecultivation,production,manufacture,exportandimportof,tradein,possessionoruseofspeci?cscheduleddrugscontrarytotheprovisionsoftheconventionsmaybelicitorillicit,butnotthesubstanceitself.However,substancescategorizedintheconventionsunderScheduleIVas“particularlyliabletoabuse”anddeemedashavingnotherapeuticvalueareessentiallyjudgedtobeillicitformedicalandscienti?cpurposes.Inthisdiscussionpaper,‘illicitdrugs’referstosubstancesthataresubjecttointernationalcontrolunderthe

drugconventionsandthatarecultivated,produced,manufactured,tra代ckedand/orusedcontrarytotheprovisionsoftheconventions.Activitiesrelatedtosomedrugsareprohibitedunderdomesticlawofsomecountriesbutarenotprohibitedundertheconventions(forexample,alcoholprohibitioninsomecountries).Conversely,activitiesrelatingtosomedrugshavebeenlegalizedandregulatedbysomenational(orsub-national)governments,suchascannabisfornon-medicaluseinCanadaandUruguaybutremainprohibitedundertheconventions.Theterms‘licit/illicit’arecommonlyusedinterchangeablywith‘legal/illegal.’

Harmreduction

Inthecontextofthe2022ConsolidatedguidelinesonHIV,viralhepatitisandsexuallytransmittedinfectionprevention,diagnosis,treatmentandcareforkeypopulations,WHOde?nesharmreductionas:

acomprehensivepackageofevidence-basedinterventions,basedonpublichealthand

humanrights,includingneedleandsyringeprogrammes,opioidagonistmaintenancetherapy,andnaloxoneforopioidoverdosemanagement.Harmreductionalsoreferstopoliciesand

strategiesthataimtopreventmajorpublicandindividualhealthharms,includingHIV,viralhepatitisandoverdose,withoutnecessarilystoppingdruguse.1

TheadvocacyorganizationHarmReductionInternational,hasabroaderde?nitionofharmreductionasapolicyparadigm,referringtothetermas:

policies,programmesandpracticesthataimtominimizethenegativehealth,socialandlegal

impactsassociatedwithdruguse,drugpoliciesanddruglaws.Harmreductionisgrounded

injusticeandhumanrights.Itfocusesonpositivechangeandonworkingwithpeoplewithout

judgement,coercion,discrimination,orrequiringthatpeoplestopusingdrugsasapreconditionofsupport.2

Decriminalization

‘Decriminalization’inthedrugpolicycontextdescribestheremovalofcriminalpenaltiesforcertainactivitiesrelatedtodrugs,usuallytheuse,and/orpossessionofsmallamountsofdrugsforpersonaluse,butsometimesalsominorsupplyorcultivationofences.Itisdistinctfromlegalization/regulation(below),whichadditionallyconcernsdrugproductionandsupply.Thereisawidearrayofpolicyandpracticeinhowdecriminalizationpoliciesareimplemented.Insomelegalsystems,criminalpenaltiesarereplacedbyciviloradministrativesanctions(e.g.?nesortreatmentassessments),whileinothers,allsanctionsareremoved.Quantitythresholdsthatde?nepersonalpossessionorintenttosupplyvarywidelybetweenjurisdictions.Adistinctionisalsomadebetweendefactodecriminalization(wherethecriminalofenceremainsbutisnotenforced)anddejuredecriminalization(wherethecriminalsanctionisremovedinlaw).

1WHO.2022.ConsolidatedguidelinesonHIV,viralhepatitisandSTIprevention,diagnosis,treatmentandcareforkeypopulations.

/publications/i/item/9789240052390

2HarmReductionInternational.“WhatisHarmReduction?”

https://hri.global/what-is-harm-reduction/

5

DevelopmentDimensionsofDrugPolicy

6

Legalization

‘Legalization’describestheprocessofbringingapreviouslyprohibitedorillegalactivitywithinthecontrolofthelaw.Withrespecttodrugs,thetermistypicallyappliedtoactsofsupply,production,manufactureorsalefornon-medicaluse,andcanpotentiallybeappliedtointernational,nationalorsubnationallegaljurisdictions.Thetermreferstotheprocessoflegalreform,ratherthanspeci?cregulationpoliciesappliedtosuchactsthatmaycomeafterlegalization.

Regulation

‘Regulation’describesrisk-basedlegalcontrolsovertheproduction,availabilityanduseofdiferentdrugsindiferentenvironments.Regulationmodelsvarywidely,andcanincludecontrolsoverproductpreparation,priceandtaxation,marketing,vendorlicensingandageaccess.Regulatedmarketscanincludecommercialretailmodels,statemonopoliesornon-pro?tmodels,coveringpartorallofthesupplychain.

Acronymsandabbreviations

EU

GDP

GrossDomesticProduct

HIV

HumanImmunode?ciencyVirus

IDPC

InternationalDrugPolicyConsortium

INCB

InternationalNarcoticsControlBoard

OCG

OrganizedCrimeGroup

OHCHR

O代ceoftheUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforHumanRights

OAMT

OpioidAgonistMaintenanceTherapy

SDG

SustainableDevelopmentGoal

UNSystemCommonPositiononDrugs

UnitedNationsSystemCommonPositionSupportingtheImplementationoftheInternationalDrugControlPolicyThroughEfectiveInter-agency

Collaboration

UNAIDS

JointUnitedNationsProgrammeonHIV/AIDS

UNDP

UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNODC

UnitedNationsO代ceonDrugsandCrime

WHO

WorldHealthOrganization

COPOLAD

CooperationProgrammebetweenLatinAmerica,theCaribbean,andtheEuropeanUniononDrugsPolicies

FARC-EP

RevolutionaryArmedForcesofColombia—People’sArmy

PACS

CommunityControlSupportProgram(Bolivia)

OSF

OpenSocietyFoundations

7

Acknowledgements

ThisdiscussionpaperwasdraftedbySteveRolles(TransformDrugPolicyFoundation).WewouldlikethankDanielJoloy(AmnestyInternational);AnnFordham(InternationalDrugPolicyConsortium);JonathanGoodhand(SchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies–UniversityofLondon);BrendanKahn,AnnaTomasi(GlobalCommissiononDrugPolicy);NatalieSharples(HealthPovertyAction);JudyChang(InternationalNetworkofPeopleWhoUseDrugs);DiegoGarciaDevis,KitiKajana,KasiaMalinowska-Sempruch(OpenSocietyFoundations);DanielBrombacher(GermanFederalProgrammeonDrugsandDevelopmentPolicy);EmilyChristie(JointUnitedNationsProgrammeonHIV/AIDS);ZavedMahmood(O代ceoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights),AntonsMozalevskis,AnnetteVerster(WorldHealthOrganization),JuanaCooke,MandeepDhaliwal,BoyanKonstantinov,WilliamPetersen,KarinSanti,MarinaSmelyanskaya,LuizaVeado(UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme);andJulieHannah,RebeccaSchleifer(InternationalCentreonHumanRightsandDrugPolicy–UniversityofEssex)fortheircontributions.ThisdiscussionpaperwaseditedbyBarbaraAnnHallandlaidoutbyRECDesign.

DevelopmentDimensionsofDrugPolicy

8

Executivesummary

Executivesummary

Bothlicitandillicitdrugmarketshavesignificantimplicationsonhumandevelopment,andrealizationoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)andthepledgetoleavenoonebehind.

WhiletheSDGsmentiondrugpolicyonlyinrelationtosubstanceabuseandcommunicablediseases,drug-relatedchallengesimpactbroaderareasofeconomicdevelopment,governance,publichealth,humanrightsandenvironmentalsustainability.Conventionalpunitivedrugcontrolapproacheshaveproveninefectiveoractivelycounterproductiveonkeymetricsinthesediferentpolicyareas.Inresponsetothesefailures,manycountriesareshiftingawayfromthepunitiveenforcementparadigmtowardpublichealth-ledreforms,followingguidancefromanarrayofUnitedNationsentities,withagrowingfocusonharmreduction,anddecriminalizationofdrugpossessionforpersonaluse.Despitethesereforms,organizedcrimegroups(OCGs)stillcontrolmostdrugmarkets,fuellingharmandlimitingpositiveoutcomes.Thishasledagrowingnumberofjurisdictionstoextendtheirpragmaticreformthinkingtosupply-sidedrugpolicyandtoexploreoptionsforlegalregulationofsomepreviouslyprohibiteddrugs.Thesereforms,however,oftencon?ictwithUnitedNations’drugtreatyobligations,meaningthattheytendtoproceedwithoutscrutinyorguidancefromglobalinstitutionsandcivilsociety.Consequently,theSDGs,alreadyinadequatelyconsideredindrugcontrol,riskbeingfurtherdilutedinreformprocesses,anduniqueopportunitiestosupportprogressontheSDGsandthepledgetoleavenoonebehindarebeingmissed.Thesereformsraisequestionsabouthowtomanageongoingtransitionstoregulateddrugmarketswhileaddressingsustainabledevelopmentpriorities.

9

DevelopmentDimensionsofDrugPolicy

10

Sustainablelivelihoods

Theglobalillegaldrugtradegeneratesvastpro?ts,estimatedatbetweenUS$600billionandUS$1trillionannually,disproportionatelybene?tingvendorsintheGlobalNorthcomparedtosmall-scaleproducersofplant-baseddrugsinpoorerregions.Manyindividualsintheseregions,oftendisplacedbycon?ictandwithlimitedopportunities,turntoillicitdrugproductionoutofeconomicnecessity.However,controlofthetradebyOCGsfuelscorruption,violenceandinsecurity,hinderingbroadereconomicdevelopment,undermininggoodgovernance,anddeterringinvestment.

Theintersectionofdrugpolicyanddevelopmenthashistoricallybeendominatedbytheconceptofalternativedevelopmentimplementedthroughprogrammesaimingtohelpruralcommunitiestransitionfromillegaldrugproductiontolegallivelihoods.Overtime,theseprogrammeshaveevolvedawayfromeradicationgoalstoplacegreateremphasisonsustainablelivelihoods,communityparticipationandgender-sensitivepolicies.However,alternativedevelopmenthasnotsigni?cantlyafectedglobaldrugsupplyanddemand,oftenleadingtothegeographicaldisplacementofproduction.

Theemergenceofnewlegaldrugmarketsoferspotentialtoreducethescaleof,andharmsassociatedwith,illegaldrugtrade,butalsothreatensthefeweconomicopportunitiesavailabletocertainmarginalizedcommunities.Theconceptof‘leavingnoonebehind’mustbecentraltothisprocess.Thepossibilityoftransitioningillicitdrugcropproducersintolegalmarketsrequirescarefulmanagement,regulatorysupportandpoliticalcommitment.

Equity-focusedpolicies,suchthoseinsomeU.S.state-levelcannabisreforms,showpotentialforembeddingsocialjusticeprinciplesintoemerginglegaldrugmarkets.Theseinitiativesfacilitatetheparticipationofcommunitiesdisproportionatelyimpactedbythehistoricwarondrugs,andalsoincorporateareparativeelement,expungingcriminalrecordsandredirectingtaxrevenuestoafectedcommunities.Tomitigaterisksandrealizetheopportunitiesoflegaldrugmarketstosupportsustainabledevelopment,proactiveengagementfrommultilateralagencies,governmentsandcivilsocietyisessential.

Governance

Illegaldrugmarketsandrelatedenforcementeffortsdisproportionatelyharmeconomicallymarginalizedcommunities,especiallyinkeyproductionandtransitregionsintheGlobalSouth.OCGsexploitinstitutionalvulnerabilitiesofsuchregions,undermininggoodgovernancebyusingviolenceandcorruptiontoexpandtheirinterestsandmaintaincontrol.Incon?ictafectedregions,armedgroupsusedrugpro?tstofundmilitarization.Lawenforcementefortsriskescalatingcon?icts,withcounterproductivestrategieslikedepositionofOCGleadersleadingtopowerstrugglesandfurtherviolence.

Executivesummary

11

Illegaldrugmarketsalsodisruptlandreformeforts.Drugcropproductionthrivesinregionswithinsecurelandrights.Asenforcementandcommercialfarmingpushdrugcropproductionintoincreasinglymarginalizedareas,itoftenresultsininformalandillegallanduseinprotectedconservationzonesandIndigenouslands.

Illegaldrugmarketsenabledbythewarondrugsunderminegovernance,security,andsustainabledevelopment,makingitcriticaltoaddressthesechallengestoachievedriveprogressontheSDGs.De-escalatingmilitarizeddrugenforcementandtransitioningtolegal,regulatedmarketscanpotentiallyhelpmitigatethesedestabilizingforces.Byfosteringlandreformandstrengtheninglocalgovernance,economicopportunitiescouldbecreatedforcommunitiescurrentlydependentonillegaldrugproduction.

Publichealth

Thecurrentpublichealthlandscapeindrugpolicyrevealsworseningoutcomes,despiteincreasedresourcesbeingdirectedtowardsdrugcontrol.UNODCreportsthat,asof2023,approximately316millionpeopleworldwidehaduseddrugsintheprecedingyear,re?ectinga28%increaseoverthepastdecade.Thisincreaseexceedspopulationgrowthandindicatesarisingprevalenceofdruguse.Aconcerningincreaseininjectingdrugusehasalsobeenobserved,alongsidetheriseofsyntheticopioids,particularlyfentanyl,fuellinganoverdosecrisis,especiallyinNorthAmerica.

Despiteagrowingfocusonpublichealth,punitivedrugenforcementremainsthedominantdrugpolicyparadigmglobally,exacerbatinghealthinequalities.Criminalizationandrelatedstigma,particularlyamongmarginalizedcommunities,contributestohigherdrug-relateddeaths,humanimmunode?ciencyvirus(HIV)andhepatitisCinfections.

Structuraldriverssuchaspoverty,inequalityandpunitiveenforcementexacerbatethechallengesofaddressingdrug-relatedharms.Stigmatizationandfearoflegalrepercussionshinderaccesstotreatmentandharmreductionservices,whichremainunderfundedandinsu代cientincoverage,particularlyforwomen.

Thedisplacementofcriticalresourcesfromevidence-basedhealthinterventionstoinefectiveorcounterproductivelawenforcementcompoundstheproblem.

DecriminalizationincountrieslikePortugalhasreducedenforcementcostsandenabledthereallocationofresourcestotreatmentandharmreduction,leadingtobetterhealthoutcomesandreducedstigma.However,decriminalizationofpossessionandusealonedoesnotimpactillegalmarkets,whichremainunderthecontrolofOCGsandsubjectedtoongoingenforcement.Regulationofdrugmarketspresentsanopportunitytoreducethescaleoftheillegaltradeandredirectfurtherenforcementsavingsandpotentialtaxrevenuesintohealthandsocialprogrammes,asseeninsomeU.S.state-levelcannabisregulationmodels.

Legalregulationofdrugmarketscreatesopportunitiestopromotesaferdrugusethroughcontrolsonpricing,potency,qualityandavailability.Lessonsfromalcohol,tobaccoandpharmaceuticalindustrieshighlightthedangersofcommercialinterests

DevelopmentDimensionsofDrugPolicy

12

seekingtoexpandmarketpro?ts,includingbytargetingvulnerablepopulations,especiallyyouth.Tomitigatetheserisks,regulatoryframeworksmustprioritizepublichealth,removepro?tincentivestoexpandmarkets,heavilyrestrictmarketing,andensurethatpoliciesareimplementedcautiouslyandincrementallysubjecttocarefulmonitoringandevaluation.Corporatecapture,i.e.unduecorporatein?uenceoverregulatoryandgovernmentaldecisions,posessigni?cantriskstopublichealthandsustainabledevelopmentinregulateddrugmarkets.Corporations,suchasthoseproducingalcohol,tobaccoandpharmaceuticals,oftenusetheireconomicandlobbyingpowertodelayorweakenregulatoryframeworksthatthreatentheirpro?tmargins.Theemerginglegalcannabisindustry,particularlyinNorthAmerica,showssignsofsimilarcorporateconsolidation.Largetransnationalcannabiscompanies,oftenbackedbyalcoholandtobaccocorporations,aregainingcontrolofbothmedicalandnon-medicalcannabissectors,limitingopportunitiesforsmaller,localactors,especiallyinregionslikeLatinAmerica.

Tomitigatetheserisks,civilsocietyadvocateshaveemphasizedtheneedtoincorporateprotectionsintodrugpolicyandlegislationfromtheoutset.Suggestedstrategiesincludepromotingequity-basedprogrammes,enforcingrobustanti-trustmeasures,limitingthenumberoflicencespercommercialentity,andrestrictingmarketaccessforcertainsectors,suchasthetobaccoindustry.Additionally,non-commercialmarketmodelssuchasstatemonopolies,socialenterprisesandnon-pro?tassociationshavebeenproposedtomitigaterisksofmarketconsolidation,andcorporatecapture.Ultimately,whiledrugmarketregulationhasthepotentialtoreduceharm,italsocarriesrisksifcommercialinterestsdominate,orsafeguardsareinadequate.UnitedNationsguidance,informedbycommunityinputandlessonsfromcurrentregulatorymodels,isessentialtoshapingdrugpolicyreformthatprioritizeshealthandsustainabledevelopment.Theimportanceofaddressinggenderdimensionsindrugpolicyanddevelopmenthasbecomeincreasinglyrecognized,withafocusonpromotinggenderequityandwomen’sempowerment.Womeninvolvedinillicitdrugmarketsfacegreaterchallengesduetointersectingdiscrimination,despitetheirsigni?cantrolesinhouseholdandcommunitylife.Gender-sensitivepolicies,particularlyinalternativedevelopment,aimtoempowerwomenbyimprovingtheiraccesstoland,?nancialservicesanddecision-makingroles,andchallengingharmfulgendernorms.

Humanrights

Punitivedrugcontrolhasledtohumanrightsabuses,disproportionatelyimpactingmarginalizedgroups,minoritiesandIndigenousPeoples.Humanrightsviolationstiedtocurrentdrugenforcementapproachesincludediscriminationanddisproportionatesentencing,massincarceration,useofcorporalpunishmentandthedeathpenalty,forcedlabourandinadequateaccesstohealthcare.TheseabuseshavebeenhighlightedbyseveralcivilsocietyandUnitedNationsentities,suchastheO代ceoftheUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforHumanRights(OHCHR)andUNDP,andmultipleindependentspecialproceduresoftheHumanRightsCouncil.Contributions

Executivesummary

13

helpingshapeamorehuman-rights-focusedapproachtodrugcontrolinrecentyearsnotablyincludetheInternationalGuidelinesonHumanRightsandDrugPolicy.

Oneimportantshiftinglobaldrugpolicydiscoursehasbeentherecognitionoftheneedforanexplorationofregulateddrugmarkets.TheOHCHRandcivilsocietyorganisations,includingAmnestyInternational,havecalledfortheresponsibleregulationofalldrugstosupporttherealizationofhumanrights.

Anumberofhumanrightsargumentshavebeenproposedinsupportofatransitiontolegallyregulateddrugmarkets.Regulatedmarketshavethepotentialtodecreasethepoweroforganizedcrime,reduceviolence,andeliminatemanyoftheabuseslinkedtomilitarizeddrugenforcement.

RecentcourtcasesinMexicoandSouthAfricahavesuccessfullyusedargumentsbasedonprivacyandbodilyautonomytochallengecannabisprohibitionlaws.Thesecasesraiseimportantquestionsabouttheproportionalityofpunitivemeasuresinaddressingdrug-relatedharms,emphasizingtheneedforlessintrusivepoliciesthatbalancetherighttoprivacywithpublichealthconcerns.

TherightsofIndigenousPeoplestousepsychoactiveplantsfortraditional,medicinalandspiritualpurposesarealsoacriticalaspectofdrugpolicyreform.InternationalhumanrightsframeworksemphasizetheneedforstatestoinvolveIndigenouscommunitiesinthedesignandimplementationofdrugpolicies,ensuringthattheirculturalpracticesareprotectedandnotcriminalized.

Asdrugpolicycontinuestoevolve,transparenthumanrightsassessments,andminimumstandardsdevisedwithactiveparticipationfromafectedcommunitieswillbeessentialtoensuringthatanytransitiontoregulatedmarketsprioritizeshumandignity,healthandequality.

Theenvironment

Theenvironmentalimpactsofillegaldrugproductionaremultifaceted,involvingdeforestation,pollution,waterdepletion,deserti?cationandhighenergyconsumption.TheseactivitiesdirectlyimpactrealizationofthemultipleSDGs3(healthandwell-being),6(cleanwaterandsanitation),13(climateaction),14(lifebelowwater)and15(lifeonland).

Despitetheattentiongiventodrugenforcement,thewiderenvironmentaldimensionsofdrugeconomieshavebeenunder-researched.Recenteforts,suchasresearchbyUNODC’sWorldDrugReports2022and2023,havedrawnattentiontotheseimpacts,butdrugpoli