TF閱讀真題第599篇Aggression

Whenoneanimalattacksanother,itengagesinthemostobviousexampleofaggressivebehavior.Psychologistshaveadoptedseveralapproachestounderstandingaggressivebehaviorinpeople.

TheBiologicalApproach.

Numerousbiologicalstructuresandchemicalsappeartobeinvolvedinaggression.Oneisthehypothalamus,aregionofthebrain.Inresponsetocertainstimuli,manyanimalsshowinstinctiveaggressivereactions.Thehypothalamusappearstobeinvolvedinthisinbornreactionpattern:electricalstimulationofpartofthehypothalamustriggersstereotypicalaggressivebehaviorsinmanyanimals.Inpeople,however,whosebrainsaremorecomplex,otherbrainstructuresapparentlymoderatepossibleinstincts.

Anoffshootofthebiologicalapproachcalledsociobiologysuggeststhataggressionisnaturalandevendesirableforpeople.Sociobiologyviewsmuchsocialbehavior,includingaggressivebehavior,asgeneticallydetermined.ConsiderDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Darwinheldthatmanymoreindividualsareproducedthancanfindfoodandsurviveintoadulthood.Astruggleforsurvivalfollows.Thoseindividualswhopossesscharacteristicsthatprovidethemwithanadvantageinthestruggleforexistencearemorelikelytosurviveandcontributetheirgenestothenextgeneration.Inmanyspecies,suchcharacteristicsincludeaggressiveness.Becauseaggressiveindividualsaremorelikelytosurviveandreproduce,whatevergenesarelinkedtoaggressivebehavioraremorelikelytobetransmittedtosubsequentgenerations.

Thesociobiologyviewhasbeenattackedonnumerousgrounds.Oneisthatpeople’scapacitytooutwitotherspecies,nottheiraggressiveness,appearstobethedominantfactorinhumansurvival.Anotheristhatthereistoomuchvariationamongpeopletobelievethattheyaredominatedby,oratthemercyof,aggressiveimpulses.

ThePsychodynamicApproach.

Theoristsadoptingthepsychodynamicapproachholdthatinnerconflictsarecrucialforunderstandinghumanbehavior,includingaggression.SigmundFreud,forexample,believedthataggressiveimpulsesareinevitablereactionstothefrustrationsofdailylife.Childrennormallydesiretoventaggressiveimpulsesonotherpeople,includingtheirparents,becauseeventhemostattentiveparentscannotgratifyalloftheirdemandsimmediately.Yetchildren,alsofearingtheirparents’punishmentandthelossofparentallove,cometorepressmostaggressiveimpulses.TheFreudianperspective,inasense:seesusas“steamengines.”Byholdinginratherthanventing“steam,”wesetthestageforfutureexplosions.Pent-upaggressiveimpulsesdemandoutlets.Theymaybeexpressedtowardparentsinindirectwayssuchasdestroyingfurniture,ortheymaybeexpressedtowardstrangerslaterinlife.

Accordingtopsychodynamictheory,thebestwaystopreventharmfulaggressionmaybetoencouragelessharmfulaggression.Inthesteam-engineanalogy,verbalaggressionmayventsomeoftheaggressivesteam.Somightcheeringonone’sfavoritesportsteam.Psychoanalysts,therapistsadoptingapsychodynamicapproach,refertotheventingofaggressiveimpulsesas“catharsis.”Catharsisistheorizedtobeasafetyvalve.Butresearchfindingsontheusefulnessofcatharsisaremixed.Somestudiessuggestthatcatharsisleadstoreductionsintensionandaloweredlikelihoodoffutureaggression.Otherstudies,however,suggestthatlettingsomesteamescapeactuallyencouragesmoreaggressionlateron.

TheCognitiveApproach.

Cognitivepsychologistsassertthatourbehaviorisinfluencedbyourvalues,bythewaysinwhichweinterpretoursituationsandbychoice.Forexample,peoplewhobelievethataggressionisnecessaryandjustified-asduringwartime-arelikelytoactaggressively,whereaspeoplewhobelievethataparticularwaroractofaggressionisunjust,orwhothinkthataggressionisneverjustified,arelesslikelytobehaveaggressively.

Onecognitivetheorysuggeststhataggravatingandpainfuleventstriggerunpleasantfeelings.Thesefeelings,inturn,canleadtoaggressiveaction,butnotautomatically.Cognitivefactorsintervene.Peopledecidewhethertheywillactaggressivelyornotonthebasisoffactorssuchastheirexperienceswithaggressionandtheirinterpretationofotherpeople’smotives.Supportingevidencecomesfromresearchshowingthataggressivepeopleoftendistortotherpeople’smotives.Forexample,theyassumethatotherpeoplemeanthemharmwhentheydonot.

Catharsis:Inpsychodynamictheory,thepurgingofstrongemotionsortherelievingoftensions.

【Paragraph2】TheBiologicalApproach.

Numerousbiologicalstructuresandchemicalsappeartobeinvolvedinaggression.Oneisthehypothalamus,aregionofthebrain.Inresponsetocertainstimuli,manyanimalsshowinstinctiveaggressivereactions.Thehypothalamusappearstobeinvolvedinthisinbornreactionpattern:electricalstimulationofpartofthehypothalamustriggersstereotypicalaggressivebehaviorsinmanyanimals.Inpeople,however,whosebrainsaremorecomplex,otherbrainstructuresapparentlymoderatepossibleinstincts.

1.Accordingtoparagraph2,whatevidenceindicatesthataggression

inanimalsisrelatedtothehypothalamus?

○Someaggressiveanimalspecieshaveahighlydevelopedhypothalamus.

○Electricalstimulationofthehypothalamusdelaysanimals’inbornreactionpatterns.

○Animalsbehavingaggressivelyshowincreasedactivity

inthehypothalamus.

○Animalswholackahypothalamusdisplayfewaggressivetendencies.

【Paragraph3】Anoffshootofthebiologicalapproachcalledsociobiologysuggeststhataggressionisnaturalandevendesirableforpeople.Sociobiologyviewsmuchsocialbehavior,includingaggressivebehavior,asgeneticallydetermined.ConsiderDarwin’stheoryofevolution.Darwinheldthatmanymoreindividualsareproducedthancanfindfoodandsurviveintoadulthood.Astruggleforsurvivalfollows.Thoseindividualswhopossesscharacteristicsthatprovidethemwithanadvantageinthestruggleforexistencearemorelikelytosurviveandcontributetheirgenestothenextgeneration.Inmanyspecies,suchcharacteristicsincludeaggressiveness.Becauseaggressiveindividualsaremorelikelytosurviveandreproduce,whatevergenesarelinkedtoaggressivebehavioraremorelikelytobetransmittedtosubsequentgenerations.

2.AccordingtoDarwin’stheoryofevolution,membersofaspeciesareforcedtostruggleforsurvivalbecause

○notallindividualsareskilledinfindingfood

○individualstrytodefendtheiryoungagainstattackers

○manymoreindividualsarebornthancansurviveuntiltheageofreproduction

○individualswithcertaingenesaremorelikelytoreachadulthood

【Paragraph5】ThePsychodynamicApproach.

Theoristsadoptingthepsychodynamicapproachholdthatinnerconflictsarecrucialforunderstandinghumanbehavior,includingaggression.SigmundFreud,forexample,believedthataggressiveimpulsesare

inevitable

reactionstothefrustrationsofdailylife.Childrennormallydesiretoventaggressiveimpulsesonotherpeople,includingtheirparents,becauseeventhemostattentiveparentscannot

gratify

alloftheirdemandsimmediately.Yetchildren,alsofearingtheirparents’punishmentandthelossofparentallove,cometorepressmostaggressiveimpulses.TheFreudianperspective,inasense:seesusas“steamengines.”Byholdinginratherthanventing“steam,”wesetthestageforfutureexplosions.Pent-upaggressiveimpulsesdemandoutlets.

They

maybeexpressedtowardparentsinindirectwayssuchasdestroyingfurniture,ortheymaybeexpressedtowardstrangerslaterinlife.

3.Theword

“inevitable”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto

○unavoidable

○regrettable

○controllable

○unsuitable

4.Theword

“they”inthepassagerefersto

○futureexplosions

○pent-upaggressiveimpulses

○outlets

○indirectways

5.Accordingtoparagraph5,Freudbelievedthatchildrenexperienceconflictbetweenadesiretoventaggressionontheirparentsand

○afrustrationthattheirparentsdonotgivethemeverythingtheywant

○afearthattheirparentswillpunishthemandstoplovingthem

○adesiretotakecareoftheirparents

○adesiretoventaggressiononotherfamilymembers

6.Freuddescribespeopleas

“steamengines”inordertomakethepointthatpeople

○deliberatelybuilduptheiraggressiontomakethemselvesstronger

○usuallyreleaseaggressioninexplosiveways

○mustventtheiraggressiontopreventitfrombuildingup

○typicallylosetheiraggressioniftheydonotexpressit

【Paragraph7】TheCognitiveApproach.

Cognitivepsychologistsassertthatourbehaviorisinfluencedbyourvalues,bythewaysinwhichweinterpretoursituationsandbychoice.

Forexample,peoplewhobelievethataggressionisnecessaryandjustified-asduringwartime-arelikelytoactaggressively,whereaspeoplewhobelievethataparticularwaroractofaggressionisunjust,orwhothinkthataggressionisneverjustified,arelesslikelytobehaveaggressively.

【Paragraph8】Onecognitivetheorysuggeststhataggravatingandpainfuleventstriggerunpleasantfeelings.Thesefeelings,inturn,canleadtoaggressiveaction,butnotautomatically.Cognitivefactorsintervene.Peopledecidewhethertheywillactaggressivelyornotonthebasisoffactorssuchastheirexperienceswithaggressionandtheirinterpretationofotherpeople’smotives.Supportingevidencecomesfromresearchshowingthataggressivepeopleoften

distort

otherpeople’smotives.Forexample,theyassumethatotherpeoplemeanthemharmwhentheydonot.

7.Whichofthesentencesbelowbestexpressestheessentialinformationinthe

highlightedsentence

inthe

passage?Incorrectanswerchoiceschangethemeaninginimportantwaysorleaveoutessentialinformation.

○Peoplewhobelievethattheyarefightingajustwaractaggressivelywhilethosewhobelievethattheyare

fighting

anunjustwardonot

○Peoplewhobelievethataggressionisnecessaryandjustifiedaremorelikelytoactaggressivelythanthosewhobelievedifferently.

○Peoplewhonormallydonotbelievethataggressionisnecessaryandjustifiedmayactaggressivelyduringwartime.

○Peoplewhobelievethataggressionisnecessaryandjustifieddonotnecessarilyactaggressivelyduring

wartime.

8.Accordingtothecognitiveapproachdescribedinparagraphs7and8,allofthefollowingmayinfluencethedecisionwhethertoactaggressivelyEXCEPTaperson’s

○moralvalues

○previousexperienceswithaggression

○instincttoavoidaggression

○beliefsaboutotherpeople’sintentions

【Paragraph5】ThePsychodynamicApproach.

Theoristsadoptingthepsychodynamicapproachholdthatinnerconflictsarecrucialforunderstandinghumanbehavior,includingaggression.SigmundFreud,forexample,believedthataggressiveimpulsesareinevitablereactionstothefrustrationsofdailylife.Childrennormallydesiretoventaggressiveimpulsesonotherpeople,includingtheirparents,becauseeventhemostattentiveparentscannotgratifyalloftheirdemandsimmediately.

■Yetchildren,alsofearingtheirparents’punishmentandthelossofparentallove,cometorepressmostaggressiveimpulses.

■TheFreudianperspective,inasense:seesusas“steamengines.”

■Byholdinginrathe