1、2009年環(huán)境生態(tài)學(xué)（雙語）考試主要內(nèi)容第一章：Introduction :what is ecology專業(yè)名詞解釋：Ecology can be defined as the study of relationships between organisms and environment. 可以被定義為生態(tài)，生物和環(huán)境之間的關(guān)系的研究。Ecology is indeed the study of relationships between organisms and the environment. 生態(tài)確實是生物和環(huán)境之間的關(guān)系的研究。Biosphere (生物圈): The porti

2、ons（部分）of earth that support life, also refers to the global ecosystem（生態(tài)系統(tǒng)）. 生物圈(biosphere)地球表層中的全部生物和適于生物生存的范圍，它包括巖石圈上層、水圈的全部和大氣圈下層。Ecosystem (生態(tài)系統(tǒng)): A biological community plus all of the abiotic factors influencing that community. 生物群落及其地理環(huán)境相互作用的自然系統(tǒng)，由無機環(huán)境生物的生產(chǎn)者(綠色植物)、消費者(草食動物和肉食動物)以及分解者(腐生微生物)4

3、部分組成。Nutrient (營養(yǎng)): Chemical substance require for the development, maintenance and reproduction of organisms. 生物體的生長，維護和繁殖所需的化學(xué)物質(zhì)。Epiphytes (附生植物): A plant, such as orchid, that grows on the surface of another plant but is not parasitic. 一個（如蘭科）植物，生長在另一種植物的表面，但不寄生。Ecotone (群落交錯帶): A spatial transit

4、ion from one type of ecosystem to another, for instance, the transition from woodland to grassland. 從一個生態(tài)系統(tǒng)類型變到另一種，例如一個從林地到草原空間的過渡。簡述題：1) Explaining why the nutrient of soil under tropical rain forest is poor, and where the nutrient stored in tropical rain forest? 解釋為何熱帶雨林下的土壤養(yǎng)分差，熱帶雨林中的營養(yǎng)存在在哪呢？由于熱帶地

5、區(qū)，降水量較大，淋洗能力強，可將營養(yǎng)元素隨水淋洗出土體，同時植物不斷吸收土壤中的養(yǎng)分，對于木本植物每年殘體歸還量有限，因此不斷的將養(yǎng)分吸收而沒有補充，就會導(dǎo)致土壤中的養(yǎng)分含量越來越低，而導(dǎo)致土壤貧瘠。第2章：Population distribution and abundance專業(yè)名詞解釋：Biomes are distinguished primarily by their predominant plants and are associated with particular climates. Soil is a complex mixture of living and nonl

6、iving material upon which most life depends. Climate diagrams summarize a great deal of useful climatic information, including seasonal variation in temperature and precipitation , the length and intensity of wet and dry seasons, and the portion of the year during which average minimum temperature i

7、s above and below 0. 生物群落的區(qū)分主要是由他們的主要植物，并與特定的氣候相關(guān)。土壤是一個復(fù)雜的生命和非生命的混合物，其中有大部分生活所依賴的物質(zhì)。氣候圖，總結(jié)了大量有用的氣候信息，包括溫度和降水的季節(jié)變化，雨季和旱季的長度和強度，并在今年的部分在此期間，平均最低氣溫高于和低于0。tropical rain forest熱帶雨林: 一般認為熱帶雨林是指陰涼、潮濕多雨、高溫、結(jié)構(gòu)層次不明顯、層外植物豐富的喬木植物群落。平均溫度為2530。Tropical savanna熱帶稀樹草原:在具有較長期干旱季節(jié)的熱帶或亞熱帶地區(qū)，以旱生草本植物為優(yōu)勢，并星散分布著旱生喬木或灌木的植物

8、群落。Temperate forest溫帶雨林: 本帶主要分布在亞洲北部、歐洲大部和北美洲北部.南半球因溫帶范圍大陸很狹,溫帶森林面積很小.亞歐大陸東部,受溫帶季風(fēng)氣候影響,夏季溫暖多雨,冬季寒冷降水少,南部是落葉闊葉林,以礫類為代表,典型土壤是暗棕壤.大陸西部,受溫帶海洋性氣候影響,夏季溫暖,冬季比大陸東岸暖和,降水四季分配均勻,Tundra苔原: 極地或高山永久凍土分布區(qū)，以地衣、苔蘚、多年生草本和小灌木組成的無林的低矮植被。簡述題：1） Draw a typical soil profile, indicating the principal layers, or horizons. D

9、escribe the characteristics of each layer. 畫出一個典型的土壤剖面，表明主體層，或視野。描述每一層的特點。（書上20頁的圖）2） Indicating the distribution of tropical rain forest on the world, and describe the environmental characteristics. 2）表示熱帶雨林在世界上的分布，描述環(huán)境特征。（書上21頁）Tropical rain forests straddle the equator in three major regions: Sou

10、thern Asia, West Africa, and South and Central America (Fig.2.10). Most rain forests occurs within 10 of latitude north or south of the equator. Outside this equatorial band are the rain forests of Central America and Mexico, southeastern Brazil, eastern Madagascar, southern India, and northeastern

11、Australia. 熱帶雨林在三個主要地區(qū)跨越赤道：東南亞，西非，南亞和中美洲（Fig.2.10）。大多數(shù)雨林發(fā)生在北緯或赤道以南10。這個赤道帶外，中美洲和墨西哥，巴西東南部，馬達加斯加?xùn)|部，印度南部，澳大利亞東北部的熱帶雨林。全年高溫多雨。全年濕度較高，降水的季節(jié)分配比較均勻，但個別地區(qū)仍有顯著差異。全年受赤道海洋氣團控制，風(fēng)力微弱，季相無變化，基本每日上午悶熱晴朗，接著積云越積越厚，午后則暴雨傾盆，雨后天氣稍涼，第二天又復(fù)如此。3） Indicating the distribution of tropical savanna on the world, and describe th

12、e environmental characteristics. 1）說明世界上的熱帶稀樹草原的分布，并描述環(huán)境特征。干濕季對比非常明顯的熱帶地區(qū)。主要見于東非、南美巴西高原和印度等地。我國云南一帶干熱河谷、海南島北部和臺灣西南部也有類似的群落分布。這些地區(qū)終年溫暖但雨量分配不均勻。年均溫約1824，年降雨量5001500毫米。特點：由于禾草的生產(chǎn)力高以及植被稀疏開曠等特點，所以在干擾較少的熱帶稀樹草原中常有大量有蹄類食草哺乳動物，如非洲薩王納群落中的斑馬、長頸鹿等。還有一些大型食肉動物如非洲獅等。它們與前述的植物群落共同形成熱帶獨特的自然景觀，引人注目。 熱帶稀樹草原的生產(chǎn)力比雨林低，平均約

13、為0.53克/米2天4） Indicating the distribution of temperate forest on the world, and describe the environmental characteristics. 2）說明溫帶森林分布在世界上，描述環(huán)境特征。本帶主要分布在亞洲北部、歐洲大部和北美洲北部.南半球因溫帶范圍大陸很狹,溫帶森林面積很小.亞歐大陸東部,受溫帶季風(fēng)氣候影響,夏季溫暖多雨,冬季寒冷降水少,南部是落葉闊葉林,以礫類為代表,典型土壤是暗棕壤.大陸西部,受溫帶海洋性氣候影響,夏季溫暖,冬季比大陸東岸暖和,降水四季分配均勻,非常適合落葉了、闊葉林生長

14、,以歐洲山毛櫸、白樺為代表樹種.典型土壤是棕壤.溫帶森林帶主要動物有松鼠、黑熊等. 5） Indicating the distribution of temperate grassland on the world, and describe the environmental characteristics. 3）世界上溫帶草原的分布，并描述環(huán)境特征。溫帶草原（temperate grassland）溫帶氣候下的地帶性植被類型之一。在世界上分布有兩大區(qū)域，即歐亞草原區(qū)和北美草原區(qū)。我國草原屬歐亞草原區(qū)一部分。我國草原區(qū)的水熱條件大體保持溫帶半干旱到溫帶半濕潤的指標，年均氣溫-3910，積溫

15、為16003200，最冷月平均氣溫為-729，年降水量在350毫米以下，氣候干燥，雨量少而變率大，多集中夏季，冬季寒長，有明顯的季相更替，土壤為黑鈣土或栗鈣土。草原植物中旱生結(jié)構(gòu)普遍存在，如葉面積縮小，葉片內(nèi)卷，氣孔下陷，機械組織和保護組織發(fā)達，地下部分發(fā)達，根系分布較淺。第3章：Life in water專業(yè)名詞解釋：Kelp forest: 海帶森林：（54頁圖上面那段）Coral reef: 珊瑚礁熱帶海洋中一些海岸、島嶼、暗礁周圍和海灘大量生長造礁石珊瑚為主的骨骼堆積形成的礁體，統(tǒng)稱為珊瑚礁。有岸礁、堡礁和環(huán)礁三種類型。Salt marshes: 鹽沼含有大量鹽分的濕地。內(nèi)陸鹽沼多分布

16、于干旱地區(qū)，由河流或地下水帶來鹽分的長期蒸發(fā)積累而成；海濱鹽沼分布在河口或海濱淺灘，由海水浸漬或潮汐交替作用而成。Mangrove forest紅樹林：紅樹林（Mangrove）指生長在熱帶、亞熱帶低能海岸潮間帶上部，受周期性潮水浸淹，以紅樹植物為主體的常綠灌木或喬木組成的潮灘濕地木本生物群落。組成的物種包括草本、藤本紅樹。它生長于陸地與海洋交界帶的灘涂淺灘，是陸地向海洋過度的特殊生態(tài)系。Salinity鹽度 ： The amount of salt dissolved in water is called salinity.一定量的鹽被溶解在水中。Dissolved oxygen溶解氧： T

17、he amount of oxygen dissolved in water is called dissolved oxygen. 溶解在水中的氧氣量稱為溶解氧。簡述題：1) Indicating the distribution region (地區(qū))of kelp forest, and environmental characteristics;2) Indicating the distribution region of coral reef, and environmental characteristics; 分布：1.岸礁沿大陸或島嶼岸邊生長發(fā)育，亦稱裙礁或邊緣礁。堡礁又稱堤

18、礁，是離岸有一定距離的堤狀礁體，它與陸地隔以瀉湖。3，臺礁呈臺地狀高出附近海底，但無瀉湖和邊緣隆起的大型珊瑚礁。也稱桌礁。,環(huán)境特征：1珊瑚生長的水溫約為2030C鹽度造礁珊瑚生長在鹽度為2740的海水中，最佳鹽度范圍是3436。 水深一般認為造礁珊瑚生長的水深范圍是 050米，最佳水深為20米以淺。光照 一般熱帶光照強，時間長，平均光照率在50%以上，有利于珊瑚礁的發(fā)育。 風(fēng)和風(fēng)浪一般迎風(fēng)浪一側(cè)礁發(fā)育較好。 河流河流入海處，海水鹽度低，泥沙含量大，混濁度高，海水透明度低，會使珊瑚窒息而死，所以有大量泥沙入海的河口處一般不發(fā)育岸礁，如海南島的岸礁在河口區(qū)缺失。 海平面變動當海面穩(wěn)定時，珊瑚礁平

19、鋪發(fā)展，但厚度不大；當海面上升或海底下沉?xí)r，形成的礁層厚度較大。當海面下降或地殼上升時，形成的礁層厚度也不大，也有的礁體可高出海面成為隆起礁。這種影響因素對古代礁意義較大。 3) Indicating the distribution region of salt marshes, and environmental characteristics; 鹽沼廣泛分布于海濱、河口或氣候干旱或半干旱的草原和荒漠帶的鹽湖邊或低濕地上。鹽沼地表水呈堿性、土壤中鹽分含量較高，表層積累有可溶性鹽，其上生長著鹽生植物，這是它的基本特性。鹽沼中的植物長期生活在多鹽的生理性干旱條件下，其形態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu)具有旱生特性4)

20、Indicating the distribution region of mangrove forest, and environmental characteristics;紅樹林的分布雖受氣候限制，但海流的作用使它的分布超出了熱帶海區(qū)。在北美大西洋沿岸，紅樹林到達百慕大群島，在亞洲則見于日本南部，它們都超過北緯32的界線，在南半球紅樹林分布范圍比北半球更遠離赤道，可見于南緯42的新西蘭北部。由于海水環(huán)境條件特殊，紅樹林植物具有一系列特殊的生態(tài)和生理特征為了防止海浪沖擊，紅樹林植物的主干一般不無限增長,而從枝干上長出多數(shù)支持根,扎入泥灘里以保持植株的穩(wěn)定。在生理方面，紅樹植物的細胞內(nèi)滲透壓

21、很高。這有利于紅樹植物從海水中吸收水分。同一種紅樹植物生長在海潮深處的葉片常較厚；生長于高潮線外陸地上的葉片常較薄。第4章：Temperature relations專業(yè)名詞解釋：Macroclimate is what weather station report and what we represented with climate diagrams in chapter 2. Microclimate is climate variation on a scale of a few kilometers, meters, or even centimeters, usually mea

22、sured over short periods of time. Photosynthesis, the conversion of light energy to the chemical energy of organic molecules, is the basis for the life of plantstheir growth, reproduction, and so on. Acclimation involves physiological, not genetic, changes in response to temperature; acclimation is

23、generally reversible with changes in environmental conditions. 簡述題：Microclimate is influenced by landscape features such as altitude, aspect, vegetation, color of the ground, and presence of boulders and burrows. 第5章：Water relations專業(yè)名詞解釋：Relative humidity: a measure of the relative water content of

24、 air. Relative Humidity= water vapor density/ Saturation water vapor densityWater potential: we can define water potential as the capacity of water to do work, and we also can define the free energy of water in solutions; Vapor pressure deficit is calculated as the difference between the actual wate

25、r vapor pressure and the saturation water vapor pressure.簡述題：Try to explain why a tall tree can absorb water up to teens of meters from soil by water potential view.第6章：Energy and nutrient relations專業(yè)名詞解釋：Autotroph: an organism that can synthesize organic molecules using inorganic molecules and ener

26、gy from either sunlight (photosynthetic autotrophs) or from inorganic molecules, such as hydrogen sulfide (chemosynthetic autotrophs).Heterotroph(異養(yǎng)生物): an organism that used organic molecules both as a source of carbon and as a source of energy.Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR): wavelengths of

27、light between 400 and 700 nm that photosynthetic organisms use as a source of energy.Photon flux density: the number of photons of light striking a square meter surface each second.C3 photosynthesis: the photosynthetic pathway used by most plants and all algae, in which the product of the initial re

28、action is phosphoglyceric acid, or PGA, a three-carbon acid. C4 photosynthesis: in C4 photosynthesis, CO2 is fixed in mesophyll cells by combining it with phosphoenol pyruvate, or PEP, to produce a four-carbon acid. Plants using C4 photosynthesis are generally more drought tolerant than plants emplo

29、ying.CAM (grassulacean acid metabolism) photosynthesis: a photosynthetic pathway largely limited to succulent plant in arid and semiarid environments, in which carbon fixation takes place at night, when lower temperatures reduce the rate of water loss during CO2 uptake. Herbivore: a heterotrophic or

30、ganism that eats plants.Carnivore: an organism that consumes flesh; approximately synonymous with predator.PAR, photosynthetically active radiation; with wavelengths between about 400 and 700 nm, carries sufficient energy to drive the light-depend reaction of photosynthesis but not so much as to des

31、troy organic molecules. Detritivores: organisms that feed on nonliving organic matter, usually the remains of plants. 簡述題：Three different biochemical pathways are known: C3 photosynthesis, C4 photosynthesis, and CAM photosynthesis. These are found in ecologically different plants. 第7章：Social relatio

32、n專業(yè)名詞解釋：Mate choice by one sex and/or competition for mates among individuals of the same sex can result in selection for particular traits in individuals, a process called sexual selection. Darwin used the term secondary sexual characteristics to mean characteristics of male or female not directly

33、involved in the process of reproduction. Intrasexual selection: the process of same sex individuals contested for mating. Intersexual selection: one sex consistently choose mates from among members of the opposite sex on the basis of some particular trait. 簡述題：第8章：Population genetics and natural sel

34、ection專業(yè)名詞解釋：Natural selection, which changes genotypic and phenotypic frequencies in populations, can result in adaptation to the environment 簡述題：第9章：Population distribution and abundance專業(yè)名詞解釋：Population: Ecologist usually define a population as a group of individuals of a single species inhabitin

35、g a specific area.簡述題：How do the individuals of a species distributed in the population?The distribution pattern observed by ecologist is strongly influenced by the scale at which a population is studied. What is “l(fā)arge” or “small” depend on the size of organism or other ecological phenomenon, On sm

36、all scales, individuals within populations are distributed in patterns that may be random, regular, or clumped; on large scales, individuals with a population are clumped.Distributions of individuals on small scales: Three basic patterns of distribution are observed on small scales: random, regular,

37、 or clumped. Random distribution: equal chance of living; Regular distribution: uniformly spaced; Clumped distribution: individuals gathered some areas than others areas; 第10章：Population dynamics專業(yè)名詞解釋:A survivorship curve summarizes the pattern of survival in a population. Cohort life table: A life

38、 table established on a group of individuals born at same time; Static life table: to record the age at death of large number of individuals that were born at different times; Age distribution: The distributions of different age portion of individuals within a population; Ongoing dispersal can join

39、numerous subpopulations to form a metapopulation; A group of subpopulations living on several patches connected by exchenge of individuals among patches make up a metapopulatons; 簡述題：1) Three types of survivorship curvesMost survivorship curves fall into three major categories; Type I survivorship c

40、urve: lower rates of mortality among young; Type II survivorship curve: a constant rates of mortality among individuals; Type III survivorship curve: very high rates of mortality among the young; 第11章：Population growth專業(yè)名詞解釋: Many environmental factors that influenced a population size can be conclu

41、ded into abiotic and biotic factors.Biotic factors are often referred to as density-dependent factors.Abiotic factors are often called density-independent factors.Logistic population growth: as resources are depleted, population growth rate slows and eventually stops, this population growth pattern

42、is called logistic population growth.簡述題：1) The population growth was without generation overlapping. Nt = N0 t In this model, Nt is the number of individuals at time t, N0 is the initial number of individuals, is the geometric rate of increase, and t is the number of time intervals or generations.2

43、) Continuous population growth in an unlimited environment can be modeled as exponential population growth: dN/dt = r NThe exponential growth equation expresses the rate of population growth, dN/dt, which is the change in numbers with change in time, as the per capita rate of increase, r, times popu

44、lation size, N. 第13章：Competition專業(yè)名詞解釋: interspecific and intraspecific competition are pervasive in nature.Self-thinning: as individuals of seedlings developed, the more and more biomass is composed of fewer and fewer individuals. The niche are defined as an n-dimensional hypervolume, where n equal

45、s the number of environmental factors important to survival and reproduction by a species. the niche summarizes the environmental factors that influence the growth, survival, and reproduction of a species.The fundamental niche: the values of the n environmental factors permitting a species to surviv

46、e and reproduce; The realized niche: a species may live and referred to these more restricted environmental factors; 第14章：Exploitation, Predation, herbivory, Parasitism, and Disease專業(yè)名詞解釋: Exploitation weaves populations into a web of relationships that defy easy generalization. Predators, parasites

47、, and pathogens influence the distribution, abundance, and structure of prey and host populations. Predator-prey, parasite-host, and host-pathogen relationships are dynamic. To persist in the face of exploitation, hosts and prey need refuges. 簡述題：第16章：Species abundance and diversity專業(yè)名詞解釋: A communi

48、ty is an association of interacting species inhabiting some defined area. Ecologists define species diversity on the basis of two factors: (1) the number of species in the community, which ecologists usually call species richness(種的豐富度). (2) the relative abundance of species, or species evenness (種的

49、均勻度). 簡述題：A commonly applied measure of species diversity is the Shannon-Wiener index: H = -pi loge pi pi代表第i種個體（個體數(shù)，或其他參數(shù)）在群落中所占比例； A combination of the number of species and their relative abundance defines species diversity. 簡述題：1) Lotka-Volterra model: Lotka-Volterra competition model.For two sp

50、ecies with interspecific competition : dN1/dt = rm1N1(K1-N1-12 N2) /K1); dN2/dt = rm2N2(K2-N2-21 N1) /K2); 2) Gauses competitive exclusion principle, which states that two species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely.第17章：Species interactions and community structure專業(yè)名詞解釋:A food web sum

51、marizes the feeding relations in a community. A summary of the feeding interactions within a community is the food webs. Keystone species are those that, despite low biomass, exert strong effects on the structure of the communities they inhabit.簡述題：Please describing Chinese farmers have used ants as

52、 keystone predators to control pests in citrus orchards for over 1,700 years.第18章：Primary production and energy flow專業(yè)名詞解釋: An ecosystem is a biological community plus all of the abiotic factors influencing that community. Primary production is the fixation of energy by autotrophs in an ecosystem. T

53、he rate of primary production is the amount of energy fixed over some interval of time. Gross primary production is the total amount of energy fixed by all the autotrophs in the ecosystem. Net primary production is the amount of energy left over after autotrophs have met their own energetic needs. A

54、nnual actual evapotranspiration (AET) is the total amount of water that evaporates and transpires off a landscape during the course of a year and is measured in millimeters of water per year. “Liebigs Law of the Minimum”: Justus liebigs pointed out that nutrient supplies often limit plant growth. A

55、trophic level is a position in a food web and is determined by the number of transfers energy from primary producers to that level. 簡述題：1) Please explaining the mechanism of bottom-up control and top-down control using case studies;2) Please describing relation between terrestrial primary production

56、 and precipitation or actual evapotransipiration;第19章：Nutrient cycling and retention專業(yè)名詞解釋:Nutrient cycling: the use, transformation, movement, and reuse of nutrients in ecosystems.Mineralization: the breakdown of organic matter from organic to inorganic from during decomposition.Decomposition: the

57、breakdown of organic matter accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide and other inorganic compounds; a key process in nutrient cycling. 簡述題：1）、Describe the nitrate cycle in global ecosystem;2)、Describe the phosphorus cycle in global ecosystem;3)、Describe the carbon cycle in global ecosystem;4)、Describe the water cycle in global ecosystem;復(fù)習(xí)題主要內(nèi)容匯總第一部分：專業(yè)名詞解釋第一章EcologyBiosphereEcosystemNutrientEpiphyteEcotone第二章Cli