1、.一The North American Translation Workshop(早期北美翻譯學(xué)派)Development: The North American Translation Workshop began to study the humans brain function in the translation . It also put forward the nature and the definition of the translation It purposed many questions about epistemology which made a differ

2、ence in the translation study and practice. It also doubt the standard of translation evaluation.The scholars in NATW subverted many traditional translation school and expressive form. It believed that translation is a kind of literary criticism.While opening up new perspectives, the general approac

3、h as practiced in the North American Translation Workshop might be characterized by a theoretical naive and subjective methodologies that tend to reinforce whatever theoretical values individual translators hold.1. I. A. Richards Richards is a critic, linguist, poet, founder of New Criticism. He is

4、often labeled as the father of the New Criticism, largely because of the influence of his first two books of critical theory, The Principles of Literary Criticism and Practical Criticism. Richardss initial premises remain intact: he still believed that the field consists of texts containing a primar

5、y body of experience that readers could discern; with the proper training, a consensus could be reached regarding what that experience might be.Richardss aims were threefold: (1) to introduce a new kind of documentation into contemporary American culture; (2) to provide a new technique for individua

6、ls to discover for themselves what they think about poetry; (3) to discover new educational methods.2. Ezra PoundEzra Pounds theory of translation focused upon the precise rendering of details, of individual words and of single or even fragmented images; Pounds theoretical writing fall into two peri

7、ods: an early imagist phase that, while departing from traditional forms of logic, still occasionally contained abstract concepts and impressions; and a second late imagist or vorticist phase that was based on words in action and luminous details; Pounds emphasis was less on the meaning of the trans

8、lated text or even on the meaning of specific words. Instead, he emphasized the rhythm, diction, and movement of words; Pound supposes that we can have a creative translation besides literal translation and free translation.3.Frederic WillMeaning is redefined by Will as thrust or energy. Meaning is

9、redefined by Will not as something behind the words or text, not as an essence in a traditional metaphysical sense, but as different, as thrust of energy, something which is at the same time indeterminate and groundless and universal and originary. Translation is possible both because dynamic univer

10、sals constantly and continually thrust and because language is impenetrable. In translation Will seems to find a possible / impossible paradox of language which not only defines the translation process, but defines how we come to know ourselves through language.4. Lawrence VenutiAn influential schol

11、ar among those who have broadened translation studies within the social-cultural framework is Lawrence Venuti. He put forward two translation strategies: Demesticating translation and Foreignising translation. Lawrence Venutis contribution to translation studies are multiple: He criticizes the human

12、istic underpinning of much literary translation in the United States and shows how it reinforces prevailing domestic beliefs and ideologies; He Provides a new set of terms and methods for analyzing translations; He offers a set of alternative strategies he would like translators to try.二The Science

13、of Translation (翻譯科學(xué)派)Development:North American translation workshop might be characterized by a theoretical naive and subjective; The problem is not just a contemporary phenomenon in North America, but one that has troubled translation theory historically;People practiced translation, but they wer

14、e never quite sure what they were practicing.Until early sixties, linguists has been characterized by largely descriptive research in which individual grammars were detailed. Generative transformational grammar along with its legitimacy within the field of linguistics, lent credence and influence to

15、 Nidas science of translation.1. Noam ChomskyThe phrase structure rules generate the deep structure of a sentence, which contained all the syntactic and semantic information that determine its meaning;Chomskys empirical evidence of language structure is not based upon living language but on sentence

16、s found only in an ideal state;He does not claim that the deep structure are universal.The form of a particular language does not necessarily equal the form of another.2. NidaHe proposed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence;He tries to lay the ground work for a larger audience;Nida simplifies

17、Chomskys transformation-generative grammar and adopt only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science.3. Wolfram WilssWilsss science of translation is divided into three related but separate branches of research: (1) a description of a “general science” of translation which invo

18、lves translation theory. (2) “descriptive studies” of translation relating empirical phenomenon of translation equivalence; (3) “applied research” in translation point out particular translation difficulties and ways of solving specific problems.Wilsss argument is based less on scientific argument a

19、nd more on intuition.Wilsss work has evolved over the course of the past two decades,especially his descriptive studies, which works with pair-bound cases and explores the various possibilities for their translation.4. Functionalist theories in German language countries:Katharina Reiss; Hans Vermeer

20、; Christiane Nord三The Early Translation Studies（早期翻譯學(xué)派）Development: P77（包括挑戰(zhàn)、特點(diǎn)、目標(biāo)、研究方法、影響）1.James Holmes:（如果全面解釋的話，就找書91頁(yè)）or （如果只是簡(jiǎn)要概括，就可以直接從91頁(yè)開始找點(diǎn)）2.Raymond Van den Broeck: Who addressed the problem of equivalence in translation from the perspective of translation studies.3.Andr Lefevere : Rewrit

21、ing-Translation is a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way.Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive as

22、pect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. Rewritings can introduce new concepts, new genres, new devices. But rewriting can also repress innovation, distort and contain. 4. Ji Lev: Levys theory also reinforced a by product of Formalism: in addition to the awareness of the corresp

23、ondence of sign to object, there is the necessary opposite function simultaneously in process, namely that the relationship between sign and object is always inadequate.5. BassnettBassnett divides Translation Studies into four categories:History of translation;Translation in the TLcultureTranslation

24、 and linguisticsTranslation and poetic四Polysystem Theory（多元系統(tǒng)學(xué)派）Development: With the incorporation of the historical horizon, polysystem theorists changed the perspective that had governed traditional translation theory and began to address a whole new series of questions. Not only are translations

25、 and interliterary connections between cultures more adequately described, but intraliterary relations within the structure of a given cultural system and actual literary and linguistic evolution are also made visible by means of the study of translated texts. 1.Turij Tynjanov :According to him, any

26、 new literary work must necessarily deconstruct existing unities, or by definition it ceases to be literary. Two changes in Tynjaovs thinking became apparent: first, “l(fā)iterariness” could not be defined outside of history.And second, formal unities receded in importance as the systemic laws were elev

27、ated.Tynjaovs major contribution to literary theory was to extend, in a logical fashion, the parameters of formalism to include literary and norms.2.Itamar Even-Zohar:Even-Zohar adopted Tynjanovs concept of system. He developed the polysystem hypothesis while working on a model for Israeli Hebrew li

28、terature. In a serious of papers written from 1970 and 1977 and collect in 1978 as “Papers in Historical Poetics” He first introduced the term “polysystem” to refer to the entire network of correlated system within society. Thus, it is a global term covering all of the literary system both major and

29、 minor existing in a given culture.He developed an approach called polysystem theory to attempt to the function of all kinds of writing within a given culture from the central canonical texts to the most marginal non-canonical texts.3.Gideon Toury:He believes that descriptive study is very important

30、, and he distinguishes three kinds of translation norms: preliminary, initial and operational norms.Several aspects of Tourys theory have contributed to development withing the field:(1) the abandonment of one-to-one notions of correspondence as well as the possibility off literary/linguistic equiva

31、lence (2) the involvement of literary tendencies within the target culture system in the production of any translated text.(3) the destabilization of the notion of an original message with a fixed identity;(4) the integration of both the original text and the translated text in the semiotic web of i

32、nteresting cultural systems.五Deconstruction (解構(gòu)主義學(xué)派)Development:The development of translation school is deeply influenced by the trend of the times. In the mid-1960s, the theoretical circles in the West made a rebellion against structuralism and the deconstruction emerged. It also called post struc

33、turalism. From the late 1980s to the early 1990s, the influence of this trend of thought has expand gradually and has a huge impact on the traditional translation theory. Deconstructionists analyze the differences, slips, changes, and elisions that are part of every text.Deconstruction is a literary

34、 theory and philosophy of language derived principally from Jacques Derridas 1967 work Of Grammatology. The premise of deconstruction is that all of Western literature and philosophy implicitly relies on metaphysics of presence, where intrinsic meaning is accessible by virtue of pure presence. Deconstruction denies the possibility of a pure presence and thus of essential or intrinsic meaning.1.FoucaultFoucault attempts to break down the traditional notion of the author,and instead suggests we think in terms of “author-function” Foucault thinks of