1、外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯The effects of subjective norms on behaviour in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysisMark Manning*University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USAA meta-analysis investigated the effects of perceived injunctive (IN) and descriptive (DN) norms on behaviour (BEH) within the th

2、eory of planned behaviour (TPB) in a sample of 196 studies. Two related correlation matrices (pairwise and listwise) were synthesized from the data and used to model the TPB relations with path analyses.Convergent evidence indicated that the relation between DN and BEH was stronger than the relation

3、 between IN and BEH. Evidence also suggested a significant direct relation between DN and BEH in the context of TPB. A suppressor effect of IN on DN in its relation with BEH was also noted Moderator analyses indicated that the DN-BEH relation was stronger when there was more time between measures of

4、 cognition and behaviour, when behaviours were not socially approved, more socially motive and more pleasant: results were mixed in the case of the IN-BEH relation. Results imply that IN and DN are conceptually different constructsAs social beings, normative pressure inevitably affects our behaviour

5、 Social nonns influence the way we dress, how we vote, what we buy, and a host of other behavioural decisions.Social psychologists have been exploring the influence of social norms on behaviour for decades From AschM and Milgram s conformity- experiments (Asch, 19S6;Milgram, Bickman, & Berkowitz, 19

6、69) through recent work by Cialdini and colleagues(Cialdini, Reno. & Kallgren, 1990; Reno, Cialdini, & Kallgren, 1993), a substantial body of evidence has demonstrated that people conform to the judgments and behaviours of others.In experiments conducted by Cialdini and his colleagues (Cialdini et a

7、l., 1990; Reno et al., 1993), participants inferred behavioural norms for littering from environmental cues and acted in accord with these norms. The results highlight the fact that perceptions of norms, ratber than actual norms, can affect behaviour Tlie relation between perceived norms and behavio

8、ur has received much empirical support (Borsari & Carey, 2003; Campo, Brossard. Fnizer. Marchell, Lewis, & Talbot, 2003; Gomberg, Schneider, & Dejong, 2(K)I; Grube, Morgan, & MeGree, 1986; Okun, Karoly, & Lutz,2002; Riniai & Real. 2005). However, one ofthc most influential models for predicting beha

9、viour, the thcor*of planned behaviour (TPB; Ajzcn, 1991), posits that rather than a direct relation between norm and behaviour, perceived nortns influence behaviour indirectly by way of behavioural intentions. Investigating the perceived norm-behaviour relation in tlic context of this theory offers

10、insight not only into the strength of the relation, but also into the extent to which perceived norms may directly influence behaviour counter to theoretical expectations.The present study used mcta-analytic path analyses to examine, the relation between two types of perceived norms (injunctive (IN)

11、 and descriptive (DN) norms; described below) and behaviour in the context of the TPB (Ajzcn. 1991). The investigation explored the direct effects of IN and DN on behaviour as well as factors that may moderate the effect of subjective norms (SN) on behaviourThe theory of planned behaviourAccording t

12、o the TPB, the immediate antecedent of behaviour is the intention to pertbrm the behaviour (Figure 1). This behavioural intention is in turn a function of three major determinants: attitude towards the behaviour, perceived SN pertaining to the behaviour, and perceived degree of control over engaging

13、 in and ctJmpleting the behaviour (perceived behavioural control).The formation of attitudes (ATT), SN and perceived behavioural control (PBC) are respectively functions of behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs and control beliefs that a person holds with regards to the behaviour Concerning ATT, th

14、e set of accessible beliefs that a person holds about the outcome of a behaviour will determine the evaluation of the behaviour, and thus influence the strength and direction of the ATT towards the behaviour.SN are a function of the normative beliefs that people relevant to the individual are percei

15、ved as having towards tbe behaviour coupled with the motivation of the individual to comply with the expected notins of these relevant persons PBC is a function of the perceived factors that will influence the ability to engage in the behaviour coupled with the perception as to whether or not these

16、factors will be present.In short, the TPB holds that favourable ATT, SN. And perceptions of control will lead to favourable intentions to engage in a given behaviour. Actual control over engaging in the behaviour is itself an important determinant To the extent that individuals realistically apprais

17、e the amount of control that they have over the behaviour, the measure of PBC; can serve as a proxy for actual control. Perceived control is expected to have a moderating effect such that intentions will be reflected in actual behaviour to the extent that perceived control is high.The TPB has been a

18、pplied successfully to a wide range of behaviours accounting for a sizable amount of variance (Armitage & Ckmner, 2001: Bamberg, Ajzen, & Schmidt,2003; Hardeman. Johnston. Johnston, Bonetti, Wareham, & Kinmonth. 2002; Povey.Wellens, & Conner, 2001; Rise. Thompson. & Verplanken, 2003). Regarding the

19、SN construct, the theory holds that the effect of SN on behaviour is fully mediated by behavioural intentions In other words, SN are not expected to have a direct effect (DE)on behaviour but instead influetice behaviours indirectly through their effect on intentions.Descriptive and injunctive normsT

20、wo types of SN can be distinguished. IN are social pressures to engage in a behaviour based on the perception of what other people want you to do whereas DN are social pressures based on the observed or inferred behaviour of others Tliis distinction has been empirically supported (Cialdini et al .,1

21、990; Deutsch & Gerard.1955; Grube et al., 1986; Larimer & Neighbours, 2005; Larimer. Turner, Mallett. & Geisner, 2004; Reno et al.,1993; Rhodes & Courneya, 2003; White, Terry, & Hogg, 1994). Within the TPB, the SN construct was originally conceptualized as an injunctive norm (Ajzen, 1991). More rece

22、ntly, however, Ajzen and Fishbein (200S) have recommended including both types of normative measures in constructing planned behaviour stirveys DN and IN will therefore be considered separately in the analyses to follow.Subjective norms-behaviour relationIn reviewing the SN construct in the planned

23、behaviour context, Conner and Armitage(1998) have noted the lack of predictive power of the IN construct when predicting intention. Due to the paucity- of studies including DN in the planned behaviour context,conclusions regarding DN in this context are sparser. Recently, several investigators have

24、included DN as predictors of intentions in the planned behaviour model (PBM;Fekadu &Kraft, 2002; MCiMUlan & Conner, 2(K)3; Okun et al. 2002: Sheeran & Orbell, 1999b). Rivis and Sbeeran (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of DN in the planned behaviour context. Their analysis, based on 18 studies, demon

25、strated a significant relationship between DN and intention when controlling for otlier variables in the TPB.In that, these previous studies have investigated the effects of SN on intentions, to date,no planned behaviour mcta-ana lysis has explored the potential for differences in the effects of SN

26、on behaviour in the planned behaviour context.Deutsch and Gerard (1955) have suggested that DN and IN refer to different sources of motivation. Regarding DN, it has been shown that perceptions of behaviours of others lead one to behave in similar manners (Asch, 1956;Milgram et al., 1969). Descriptiv

27、e normative information functions as a heuristic with regards to behavioural decisions offering cues as to what is appropriate behaviour iii a given situation (Cialdini et al., 1990; van Knippenberg, 2000). IN on the other iiand operate more through the role of motivation to comply with social sanct

28、ions (Ajzen, 1991;Lapinski & Rimal, 2005). To the extent that individuals are motivated to comply with perceived behavioural expectations of relevant referents, they avoid social sanctionsThough several studies have looked at the effect of one or botli types of norms on particular behaviours, there

29、has yet to be a single meta-analytical review that compares the relationship between the two types of norms and behaviours across a spectrum of behaviours. Consequently, on a general level it is unknown whether one type of norm has a stronger effect on behaviour than the other it may be hypothesized

30、 that DN have a stronger effect on behaviour than IN because DN are activated in the immediate behavioural situation. Furthermore, processing of DN for behavioural decisions may require less cognitive effort relative to the processing of IN, in that DN may rely more on heuristic than systematic info

31、rmatioprocessing Perhaps, this advantage contributes to efficient behavioural decisionmaking in line with descriptive normative information. In fact, researchers have shown that conditions that facilitate the use of heuristic information-processing lead participants to act more in line with DN (Hert

32、el, Neuhof, Theucr, & Kerr, 2000). It is expected therefore, that DN will have a stronger effect on behaviour relative to IN.Direct effect ofSN on behaviourThe TPB posits that the relationship between SN and behaviour is fully mediated by behavioural intentions (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1973)

33、However, a number of planned behaviour studies that have included normative constructs as a behavioural predictor have found direct effects of SN on behaviour (Christian & Abrams, 2004 -Study 2; Christian & Arm讓age, 2002; Christian, Armitage, & Abrams, 2003; Okun et al.,2002; Trafimow & Finlay, 2001

34、). In most research with the TPB, the effect of the normative component on intentions has received most attention (Armitage & Conner,2001; Rivis & Sheeran, 2003) while the potential for a DE of SN on behaviour has received little empirical or meta-analytical scrutiny.One reason to explore, the poten

35、tial for a DE may be the hypothetical nature under which most people report cognitions pertaining to behaviour in planned behaviour studies Hypothetical contexts may not accurately reflect the relations between cognitions and behaviours that are evident in real behavioural contexts (Ajzen, Brown, &

36、Carvajal, 2004). Furthermore, when an individual reports an intention to engage in a particular behaviour in one instance, that behavioural intention may be subject to change from the instance it is formed to the moment when an opportunity for behavioural engagement arises (Ajzen, 1991).For example,

37、 in the classic linn (1965) study, hotel managers expressed little intent to allow Chinese couples to stay in their hotels, however allowed them to do so when the instance arose It is less likely that perceptions of norms related to the behaviour will change over time. Consequently, there is the pot

38、ential for reported normative perceptions to have stronger relations with behaviour compared with relations between reported behavioural intentions and behaviour. This may be reflected in the presence of a DE of SN on the particular behaviour. The present meta-analjtical synthesis provides the oppor

39、tunity* to gauge the potential for a direct relation between SN and behaviour in the context of the TPB.Variation in the magnitude of the SNehaviour relationshipThe possibility of a DE of SN on behaviour within the TPB implies that there are two ways in which SN can affect behaviour. There can be th

40、e theoretically posited indirect effect on behaviour mediated through intentions, and there may be a DE on behaviour. The total effect therefore is the sum of these two effects In accord with the prediction that DN have a stronger relation with behaviours compared to the IN-behaviour relation, it is

41、 expected that the total effect of DN on behaviour is greater than the total effect of IN on behaviour. In addition to predicted differences between DN and IN in their effects on behaviour, there is the potential for differences in the magnitude of the effect within each type of norm. Compatibility*

42、 between measures of cognition and behaviour and the time between measurement of cognitions and behaviour are expected to lead to differences in the magnitudes of the effects of SN on behaviour. Additionally, the potential moderating effect of three further variables will be explored;the level of so

43、cial approval of the behaviour, the extent to which social motives underlie behaviour, and the extent to which a behaviour is uselial versus pleasant may all contribute to variance in the relationship between norms and behaviour.CompatibilityElements of a particular behaviour can be defined in terms

44、 of the behavioural target, the action involved in the behaviour, the context in which the behaviour is performed, and the time at wliich it is performed. The relationship between cognitive predictors of a particular behaviour and engagement in the behaviour will be stronger if behavioural elements

45、and cognitive assessment of the behaviour are compatible (Ajzen, 1996; Ajzen & Fishbein. 1977). That is to say., for instance, that if an investigator would tike to pretlict someones propensity* to exercise 3 days a week for half an hour, measures should assess cognitions regarding exercising 3 days

46、 a week for half an hour rather than cognitions to be healthy, or some other general cognition regarding exercise Tenned the ”principle of compatibility0, it holds that measurements of planned behaviour variables must be compatible with the target behaviour in terms of target, action, context, and t

47、ime. Given the effect of compatibility and the magnitude of the correlations between planned behaviour variables and behavioural measures, it is expected that studies where the cognitive and behavioural measures are fully compatible will feature stronger relations between SN and behaviour. It is als

48、o expected that among studies where measures are more compatible, the intention mediated relation between SN and behaviour will be stronger than any unmediated relation, in line with theoretical dictates, whereas among studies that are less compatible there will potentially be greater direct effects

49、 of SN on behaviour.Time interval between measures of SN and behaviourAccording to Ajzen ( 1991 ). cognitive precursors of behaviour that are measured closer to the target behaviour should be more predictive of behavioural engagement. Due to motivational considerations, measures of the intention to

50、engage in a particular behaviour will vary as a function of proximity to behavioural engagement (Bandura & Schunk. 1981; Kamiol & Ross, 1996; Steel & Konig, 2006) in that tlie ftirther in the future is the potential behavioural engagement, the less predictive are intentions to engage in this behavio

51、ur. As Ibe relation between stated intentions and actual behaviour decreases over time, the potential exists for SN to be relatively more predictive of behaviour. This potential is evident in light of the argument outlined above wherein SN pertaining to a behaviour are less likely to change over tim

52、e compared to behavioural intentions. As such, it is expected that as the time between measurement of cognitions and behaviour increases, SN will be reflected to a greater extent in actual behaviour.Furthermore, as the relation between intentions and behaviour diminishes, it is likely that the DE of

53、 SN on behaviour will be stronger as more time passes between measures of cognition and behaviour.計(jì)劃行為理論根據(jù)TPB理論，行為的直接前因是執(zhí)行行為的意向。這種行為的意圖主要包括三個(gè)因 素：態(tài)度的行為，知覺的SN有關(guān)行為，從事和完成控制的認(rèn)知度行為(知覺行為控制)。態(tài)度(ATT) , SN和知覺行為控制(PBC)的形成分別由于行為的信念，規(guī)范信念和控 制信念，是人持有對(duì)待行為的。有關(guān)ATT,訪問信念，一個(gè)人擁有一個(gè)行為的結(jié)果將決定行 為的評(píng)價(jià)，從而影響態(tài)度對(duì)于行為的強(qiáng)度和方向。SN形成于規(guī)范信念

54、，有關(guān)的人個(gè)別被視 為對(duì)行為的動(dòng)機(jī)，加上有個(gè)人遵守有關(guān)人士預(yù)期的規(guī)范。PBC是知覺因素的作用，這將影響 從事行為的能力以及這些因素呈現(xiàn)與否的觀感。簡而言之，TPB認(rèn)為，良好的ATT, SN,和控制的看法會(huì)導(dǎo)致有利的意圖從事某一行為。 從事實(shí)際控制行為本身就是一個(gè)重要的決定因素。在某種程度上，個(gè)人實(shí)事求是地評(píng)價(jià)了控 制他們的行為的量，PBC的測(cè)量可以作為一個(gè)實(shí)際控制代理。預(yù)計(jì)知覺控制有一個(gè)調(diào)節(jié)作用， 這樣的意圖將反映在實(shí)際行為知覺控制，程度是高的。TPB已成功地應(yīng)用于廣泛的行為占相當(dāng)數(shù)量的方差。關(guān)于SN結(jié)構(gòu)，該理論認(rèn)為，對(duì)SN 對(duì)行為的影響完全中介行為意圖。換句話說，SN預(yù)計(jì)不會(huì)對(duì)行為有直接影響

55、(DE)的行為， 而是通過他們對(duì)意圖的影響間接影響行為。描述和強(qiáng)制性規(guī)范SN可以區(qū)分為兩種類型。IN是基于感知其他人要你做什么的從事行為的社會(huì)壓力而DN 是基于別人被觀察或被推斷的行為的社會(huì)壓力。這個(gè)區(qū)別得到實(shí)證支持。根據(jù)TPB, SN結(jié)構(gòu) 最初概念化作為強(qiáng)制令規(guī)范，然而最近Ajzen and Fishbein (2005)建議包括兩種類型的規(guī)范 措施在建設(shè)規(guī)劃的行為調(diào)查中，DN和IN將因此被認(rèn)為是單獨(dú)分析。主觀規(guī)范行為的關(guān)系在審查計(jì)劃行為方面的SN結(jié)構(gòu)中，Conner and Armitage (1998)已經(jīng)注意到在預(yù)測(cè)意圖 時(shí)預(yù)測(cè)能力的缺乏。由于包括在計(jì)劃行為方面的DN研究的不足，在這方面的DN的結(jié)論是稀少 的。近日，一些研究者已經(jīng)把DN作為意向的預(yù)測(cè)列入計(jì)劃行為模型，進(jìn)行DN在計(jì)劃行為方面 的meta分析。他們的分析，根據(jù)18項(xiàng)研究，表現(xiàn)出在TPB中控制其他變量時(shí)DN和意圖之間的 關(guān)系。在這，這些以前的研究已經(jīng)考察了SN對(duì)意圖的影響，迄今，沒有計(jì)劃行為meta分析探 討了 SN在計(jì)劃行為方面對(duì)行為的影響的潛在差異。Deutsch and Gerard (1955)有建議DN和IN涉及不同來源的動(dòng)機(jī)。關(guān)于DN,它已被證明 對(duì)他人的行為的看法導(dǎo)致一個(gè)類似的舉止行為。描述規(guī)范性信息可以作為行為決定的啟發(fā), 在特