1、.,指示語,Deixis,.,1. What is Deixis?,1) Knowledge is power. 2) I am the British Prime Minister. 3) The President met the British Prime Minister there yesterday. Q. Can truth-conditional semantics account for these three sentences equally well? If not, where are the differences between them?,.,1.2 Defin

2、ing Deixis,A technical term from Greek, meaning “pointing” via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, which is also called an indexical. A deictic expression is used to indicate something in the immediate context. So a deictic expression enco

3、des information in context (Yule, 1996),.,Deictics are expressions whose interpretations make essential reference to certain aspects of their contexts of utterance, including the role of participants in the speech event and their spatio-temporal and social location. To put it simply, those expressio

4、ns whose meaning cannot be fully understood without reference to the context in which they are uttered, or whose references depend critically on the context in which they are uttered (Levinson, 1983),.,classification,Person deixis: me, you, etc.人稱指示 spatial/place deixis: here, there地點(diǎn)指示 Temporal/tim

5、e deixis: now, then時(shí)間指示 Others termed discourse deixis (that, this) Social deixis (tu, vous) 篇章指示 社交指示,.,Deictic expressions include definite noun phrases, personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, tenses, etc. 表空間位置的副詞： Johnny lives upstairs. Harry lives nearby.,.,2. Pragmatic description,2.1 cat

6、egories used to describe deixis Person deixis: the role of participants 1st person: the speaker 2nd person: the hearer 3rd person: third party (neither the speaker nor the hearer),.,學(xué)生：“病了，今天不能去上課了， 他讓我跟您請(qǐng)個(gè)假。” 教授：“好的，我知道了。那么， 你是誰？” 學(xué)生：“是我的同屋?！保↙evinson，1983） 人稱指示是以發(fā)話人作基準(zhǔn)的，受話人理解話語時(shí)自然要對(duì)人稱指示作相應(yīng)的變換。這已成為

7、一條交際的準(zhǔn)則。,.,第一人稱指示語 （1）Lets go to the cinema. （2）? Lets go to see you tomorrow. 根據(jù)夸克等人（Quirk et. al）合著的當(dāng)代英語語法（1973），lets在非常通俗的口語中有時(shí)也可用作單數(shù)，這就是說它可以不包括談話的對(duì)方，而只借指單數(shù)的“讓我”，相當(dāng)于let me： Lets give you a hand. （Let me give you a hand.） 漢語？我們我？,.,第一人稱復(fù)數(shù)代詞借指單數(shù)的功能在漢語中是常見的。 （1）經(jīng)過觀察和分析，我們認(rèn)為 （2）本文只對(duì)喬姆斯基的轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法作一概述，有關(guān)

8、它的近期發(fā)展我們準(zhǔn)備另文介紹。 （3）咱們（我）是個(gè)計(jì)算機(jī)盲，不會(huì)撥弄那玩意兒。,.,2nd person,1. We should not do it, Tom. 2. You should not do it, Tom. Style: intimate 漢語第二人稱指示語？ 第二人稱指示信息有時(shí)可以通過第一人稱指示語表達(dá)。 （1）我相信，我們（你們）每個(gè)青年同志一定不會(huì)辜負(fù)黨和國家對(duì)我們（你們）的期望。 （2）你要記住，我們（你）是學(xué)生，我們（你）的主要任務(wù)是學(xué)習(xí)。,.,（3）同志，咱們（你們）這兒有海爾電冰箱嗎？ （4）咱們（你，對(duì)小孩）別哭，媽媽給你拿好吃的。 Q. 漢語中哪些情況下第

9、二人稱指示信息可以用第一人稱指示語來表達(dá)？ 這種現(xiàn)象的語用學(xué)解釋？,.,第二人稱指示還可以泛指任何人，這時(shí)用單數(shù)復(fù)數(shù)代詞表示？ （1）你想在事業(yè)上取得成功，你就必須下一番苦功夫。 （2）他那刻苦鉆研的精神你不能不佩服。 （3）這個(gè)人性格內(nèi)向，不善表達(dá)，你問他十句，他才答你一句。,.,Place deixis: The encoding of temporal points or spans relative to the location of the speaker Proximal: here Distal: there Q.從語用學(xué)的角度看“這那”的指示用法? 從語用學(xué)的角度看“來去”的

10、指示用法? 漢語中哪些成分可以表示地點(diǎn)指示?,.,Time deixis: The encoding of temporal points or spans relative to the time of speaking (the coding time as opposed to the receiving time) Proximal: now Distal: then Proximal: present tenses Distal: past tenses,.,時(shí)間指示中的時(shí)間單位概念可以分為歷法時(shí)間單位（calendric time units）和非歷法時(shí)間單位（non-calend

11、ric time units）。 歷法時(shí)間單位都是固定的、絕對(duì)的時(shí)間 1987年（1月1日12月31日）歷法時(shí)間 我在北京住了一年，從1987年9月1日到1988年9月1日。非歷法時(shí)間,.,Discourse deixis: the encoding of reference to portions of the unfolding discourse E.g. That is what I want to know. Social deixis: 語言結(jié)構(gòu)中能反映出語言使用者的身分和相對(duì)社會(huì)地位的那些詞語和語法范疇 tu/vous distinction in French, Chinese

12、 counterparts? Ni/nin,.,社交指示（社會(huì)指示） 語言中的社交指示信息，根據(jù)菲爾默（Fillmore）的意見，可以在下面幾個(gè)方面得到反映： A 人稱標(biāo)記，如語言中的代詞等的應(yīng)用。 B 不同的言語平面（speech levels），如坦率或禮貌的言談、敬語或謙語等的認(rèn)別。 C 談話場(chǎng)合，如正式與非正式場(chǎng)合、嚴(yán)肅與隨便場(chǎng)合的區(qū)別。 D 人名、職務(wù)和親屬的稱謂，如根據(jù)說話人、聽話人和第三者的關(guān)系反映出不同的稱謂表達(dá)方式。 E 作為社交行為的言語表現(xiàn)方式，如問候、道謝等 F 配合其他社交行為而使用的言語表現(xiàn)方式。 G 說話人運(yùn)用言語手段向聽話人發(fā)出的種種指示信息。,.,稱呼語： 一

13、個(gè)名叫王薇的姑娘，其男友熱烈追求她時(shí)稱呼她“薇”或“小薇”；后來隨著二人感情的變化，他開始稱她“王薇”；當(dāng)男友稱她“小王”時(shí)，她知道他的感情已經(jīng)離去。 敬謙語： 稱自己：愚、仆、臣、妾、鄙人、下官、小生 不才 稱別人：君、公、子、卿、閣下、先生 稱妻子：內(nèi)人、荊婦、山妻 稱兒子：小兒、犬子 稱別人的兒女：令郎、令嗣、令愛、令媛 謙：寒舍、敝姓 尊：貴姓、貴體,.,2. 2 characteristics of deixis,All deictic expressions depend, for their interpretation, on the speaker and the heare

14、r who share the same context. In face to face expression is more tied to the speaker/hearers context?,Speaker The speaker expresses his ideas about the world from his personal point of view.,.,Therefore, deictic expressions have basic distinctions between being “near speaker” and “distant from speak

15、er” or “away from speaker”.,.,The deictic center Deixis has to be interpreted in terms of the speakers location, or the deictic center which means that the speaker organizes messages from his personal point of view. This can be understood as egocentric,.,deictic center () the central person the spea

16、ker () the central time the time at which speaker produces the utterance. () the central place the speakers location at utterance time or CT. () the discourse center the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance. () the social center the speakers social status and ra

17、nk, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative.,.,The deictic system: A: the coding time B: in connection with the coding time C: not in connection with the coding time,.,The deictic projection The speaker speaks as if the central person were the hearer, the central time were

18、 the time the hearer received the utterance and the central place were the hearers location rather than the speakers location.,.,When it is not a face-to-face conversation, when the speaker and the addressee are not in the same place at the time of speaking, thenthe egocentricity may be violated. It

19、 means that sometimes deictic expressions are used in ways that shift the deictic center to other participants in narratives. Lyons called this deictic projection. Fillmore (1975)called it shifts in point of view.,.,How to realize deitic projection? 1. 說話人把指示中心從“自我”轉(zhuǎn)移到他人身上： addressee-centered, or no

20、n-addressed participant-centered, or home-based I am not here now. (notice left to others) (Some one knocks at the door) Im coming. I came over several times to your place, but you were out.,.,2. 在敘述文中，指示中心從話語生產(chǎn)者(作者本人) 轉(zhuǎn)移到故事中的某個(gè)角色身上或者轉(zhuǎn)移到隱藏在幕后虛構(gòu)的敘述者身上。 I was looking at this little puppy in a cage wit

21、h such a sad look on its face. It was like, “Oh, I am so unhappy here, will you set me free?”,.,Examples for analysis,Dad will play with you. (talking to his baby) Ive gone to the post office and will be back soon. (the left message on the door),.,Why does deitic projection appear in language use? P

22、ragmatic empathy; for the empathy effect Empathy : the power of understanding and imaginatively entering into another persons feelings.,.,從語用學(xué)的角度出發(fā)，雖然違背了指示語以說話人為中心的屬性，但說話人不以自身為指示中心,而把參照點(diǎn)轉(zhuǎn)移到聽人或其他聽眾身上，在這個(gè)過程中說話人以對(duì)方為指示照，從對(duì)方的角度說話, 從而產(chǎn)生了語用移情。 移情在語用學(xué)上指交際雙方情感相通, 能設(shè)想和理解方用意, 涉及說話人如何刻意對(duì)聽話人吐露心聲, 表達(dá)意圖, 聽話人如何設(shè)身處地

23、來理解說話人言談的心態(tài)和意思。,.,Lyons called this phenomenon empathetic deixis (移情指示現(xiàn)象)(P677) For example: First person pronouns may be used to refer to the second and third persons (Doctor to Patient) How are we feeling today? (Mum to Dad) Were in a bad mood today. (the kid) 2. space deixis : come / go; here / t

24、here; this / that,.,發(fā)話人常常通過選擇不同的移動(dòng)動(dòng)詞come, go及指示代詞this, that等,自覺、不自覺地違反指示語的自我中心特性,來縮短或拉開自己和受話者之間的心理距離或感情距離,以示友好或冷漠。 從禮貌的角度講,在交談中發(fā)話者選擇表示近指的come、this、here比選擇表示遠(yuǎn)指的go、that、there顯得友好和親切 Condition for empathetic deixis？,.,Condition for empathetic deixis: 移情是指示語映射現(xiàn)象這一非常規(guī)選擇所產(chǎn)生的最基本的語用效果。 移情的產(chǎn)生需有兩個(gè)必要的條件: 一是意識(shí)到

25、或了解自己的感受, 二是將自己與別人等同起來 (王初明，P112),.,context and deictic projection:,語境是會(huì)話含義產(chǎn)生的寓所,要研究指示語映射現(xiàn)象所凸現(xiàn)的語用含義和效果,不能離開其所依附的語境。 在不同的語境中, 指示語映射除了產(chǎn)生“移情”的語用效果外, 由于說話人和聽話人之間特殊的關(guān)系, 還能產(chǎn)生更為復(fù)雜的語用效果,如幽默滑稽、羞辱貶斥、嘲諷和誘騙等等。,.,Why is deixis ego-centric in nature?,.,Two points: The role of the encoder and the decoder, especial

26、ly the role of the encoder (encoding from his perspective); The relation established between ego and non-ego in the organization of the message at different dimensions.,.,Deictic and non-deictic usages Examples: 1 You can vacuum while you wash the dishes, and keep your hat on Ill get the groceries.

27、2 I have been monitoring activities on Earth for some time, and have sent an invasion force disguised as trucks there to control widespread corruption. 3 Were supposed to see Dr. Gesundheit today, but Sandy refuses to go there unless she gets a balloon.,.,Deictic usage: revolving a relation between

28、an object in the world and a linguistic form with no semantically determined reference (the form X is used to refer to A, the reference is determined in the discourse) Non-deictic usage: involving relations between such a form and some other linguistic expression (the form X is used to the same thin

29、g as its antecedent; coreferential relations),.,同一詞語可以既具有指示性的用法，又具有非指示性的用法。指示語的理解依賴于語境，它的所指（referent）存在于語境之中。而指示語作為非指示性詞語來用，它們的所指是存在于它們出現(xiàn)的上下文中的，我們將其稱為“照應(yīng)用法（anaphoric）”。 照應(yīng)用法：指的是一個(gè)詞語的所指跟上文或下文出現(xiàn)的別的詞語的所指是同一對(duì)象。,.,小王學(xué)的是日語，他希望有一天能到日本去深造?；刂?前指 他是這樣對(duì)我說的：“”下指/后指 語用學(xué)研究所關(guān)心的是詞語的文外照應(yīng)關(guān)系，因?yàn)檫@是一種存在于語言和語境之間的關(guān)系，詞語的這種用

30、法源出于語境，它們的使用和理解又都有賴于語境。我們把某些詞語稱為指示語是因?yàn)檫@些詞語在很多情況下具有文外照應(yīng)功能，但這并不等于說這些詞語不能具有文內(nèi)照應(yīng)功能，只是它們的不同用法體現(xiàn)了詞語的不同功能。,.,4 Ok, this will prove that Eks is irresponsible: when we were on a committee together, he felt asleep during every meeting that he managed to attend. 5 Put that in the wastebasket, please. 6 The dea

31、n expelled John because he discovered his secret. 7 Before he got out of bed, James decided that today would be a good day to leave for Crisfield. 8 How did you enjoy your trip? 9 I cut finger: this one. 10 I am enjoying life here in Nottingham. 11 Sandy wants to go to the park, but doesnt know now

32、to get there.,.,deictic and non-deictic distinction,Deictic: gestural / symbolic Non-deictic: anaphoric /non-anaphoric,.,指示語有兩種指示用法，一種是身勢(shì)用法（gestural usage），一種是象征用法（symbolic usage）。這一對(duì)術(shù)語是菲爾默（Fillmore）在1971年的一篇論文中首先使用的。 （1）身勢(shì)用法：指示詞語通常伴隨副語言特征一起使用。 with reference to an audio-visual-tactile and a physical, monitoring of the speech event e.g. This one is genuine, but this one is fake. 那輛自行車是我的。 把鋼琴放這兒，不，不是這兒，是這兒。,.,（