1、29 The Metallurgy of Welding; Welding Design and Process Selection 焊接冶金，焊接設(shè)計(jì)與工藝制定 29.1 Introduction Weld joints can be gotten by the welding processes described in chapter 27 and chapter 28. Is the joint strong enough (good), so-so or fail?,Because of the heating process, there must be some metallur

2、gical and physical changes（冶金與物理變化）in the materials.,other property,strength, ductility, and toughness of a welded joint,mechanical property,For example, the rate of heat application and the thermal properties of metals are important, in that they control the magnitude and the distribution of temper

3、atures in the joint. The microstructure and grain size of the welded joint （焊接接頭的微觀結(jié)構(gòu)與晶粒尺寸）depend on the amount of heat applied and the consequent temperature rise, on the degree of prior cold work of the metals（冷加工程度）, and on the rate of cooling after the weld is produced. Control of such factors i

4、s essential to the creation of reliable welds that have acceptable mechanical properties.,Weld quality depends on many factors, among them the geometry of the weld bead and the presence of cracks, residual stresses, inclusions, oxide films and so on. Weld quality the microstructure and grain size of

5、 the welded joint 焊接接頭的微觀結(jié)構(gòu)與晶粒尺寸 the geometry of the weld bead 焊道的幾何因素 defects in joint 接頭缺陷 Temperature and its distribution 溫度分布 heating duration at high temperature cooling,Temperature is decisive,29.2 The welded joint Three distinct zones can be identified in a typical fusion-weld joint: base me

6、tal; 母材 heat-affected zone (HAZ); 熱影響區(qū) weld metal. 焊縫,Figure 29.1 Characteristics of a typical fusion weld zone in oxyfuel gas and arc welding.,The metallurgy and properties of the HAZ and weld metal depend strongly on the metals joined, 焊接金屬 the welding process, 焊接方法 the filler metals used, if any,

7、 填充金屬 and the process variables. 焊接參數(shù),the metals joined, 焊接金屬 Temperature distribution for welding of different materials under same energy input and same welding speed.,the welding process, 焊接方法 Energy density for fusion welding,Compare of the energy distribution of (a) arcs, and (b) the consumable

8、 arc with flame (a) (b),the process variables. 焊接參數(shù) Profiles of weld bead and HAZ . different welding current and voltage for CO2 weldinggas metal arc,29.2.1 Solidification of the Weld Metal 焊縫凝固 Weld metal: Melting during welding and then cooled down (solidification). The solidification process of

9、the weld metal is similar to that in casting and begins with the formation of columnar (dendritic) grains. relatively long and parallel to the heat flow. or perpendicular(垂直于) to the surface of the base metal (shallow weld).,Figure 29.2 Grain structure in (a) a deep weld (b) a shallow weld. Note tha

10、t the grains in the solidified weld metal are perpendicular to the surface of the base metal. In a good weld, the solidification line at the center in the deep weld shown in (a) has grain migration, which develops uniform strength in the weld bead.,The solidification of welding pool under: a) low sp

11、eed welding b) high speed welding columnar (dendritic) grains.,Grain structure and size depend on the specific alloy, the specific welding process employed, (cooling velocity) and the specific filler metal. The way to improve the mechanical properties of the joint: The proper selection of filler-met

12、al composition, control of cooling rate, or adoption of heat treatments following welding Cooling rates may be controlled and reduced by a preheating of the general weld area prior to the welding.,The weld metal has, basically, a cast structure and, because it has cooled slowly, it has coarse grains

13、（粗大晶粒）.,29.2.2 Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) 熱影響區(qū) It has a microstructure different from that of the base metal prior to welding, because it has been subjected to elevated temperatures for a period of time during welding; The properties and microstructure of the HAZ depend on (Thermal cycling) the rate o

14、f heat input and cooling, and the temperature to which this zone was raised Carbon steel Martensite 馬氏體 Pearlite 珠光體 Cementite 滲碳體 ferrite 鐵素體 Austenite 奧氏體 annealing, normalizing, quenching, and tempering The size of HAZ depend on temperature distribution. 溫度分布,Figure 29.4 Schematic illustration of

15、 various regions in a fusion weld zone (and the corresponding phase diagram) for 0.30% carbon steel,The strength and hardness of the HAZ depend partly on how the original strength and hardness of the base metal was developed prior to the welding. The heat applied during welding recrystallizes (再結(jié)晶）t

16、he elongated grains of the cold-worked （冷軋拉長的晶粒）base metal. Grains that are away from the weld metal will recrystallize into fine equiaxed grains（等軸晶）. Grains close to the weld metal, on the other hand, have been subjected to elevated temperatures for a longer period of time， consequently they will

17、grow. This growth will cause their region to be softer and to have less strength. For some materials under a certain welding processes, harden region will appear after cooling. Quenching 淬火,29.3 Weld defects As a result of a history of thermal cycling and its attendant microstructrual changes, a wel

18、ded joint may develop various discontinuities. 不連續(xù)性 Welding discontinuities can also be caused by inadequate or careless application of established welding technologies or by substandard operator training. （不按焊接工藝執(zhí)行或缺乏焊工培訓(xùn)）,29.3.1 Porosity 氣孔 Porosity in welds is caused by gases released during melt

19、ing of the weld area but tapped during solidification, 析出性氣孔 by chemical reactions during welding, or 反應(yīng)性氣孔 by contaminants. 污染物 侵入性氣孔,Most welded joints contain some porosity, which is generally in the shape of spheres or of elongated pockets. （球形或長型） The distribution of porosity in the weld zone m

20、ay be random or the porosity may be concentrated in a certain region. The classification of porosity related to gas?,Porosity in welds can be reduced by the following practices: a. proper selection of electrodes and filler metals; b. improved welding techniques, such as preheating of the weld area o

21、r an increase in the rate of heat input; c. proper cleaning, and the prevention of contaminants from entering the weld zones; d. reduced welding speeds, to allow time for gas to escape. 氣體逸出,29.3.2 Slag Inclusions 夾渣 Slag inclusions are compounds such as oxides, fluxes, and electrode-coating materia

22、ls that are trapped in the weld zone. Welding conditions are important; with proper techniques, the molten slag will float to the surface of the molten weld metal and will not become entrapped.,29.3.3 Incomplete Fusion and Penetration (未熔合和未焊透） Incomplete fusion (lack of fusion) produces poor weld b

23、eads,Figure 29.6 Low-quality weld beads, the result of incomplete fusion,Incomplete penetration occurs when the depth of the welded joint is insufficient.,29.3.4 Bad Weld Profile 焊縫外形 Underfilling (未填滿） results when the joint is not filled with the proper amount of weld metal. Undercutting （咬邊）resul

24、ts from the melting away of the base metal and the consequent generation of a groove in the shape of a sharp recess or notch. Overlap（焊瘤） is a surface discontinuity usually caused by poor welding practice and by the selection of improper materials.,29.3.5 Cracks 裂紋 Cracks may occur in various locati

25、ons and directions in the weld area. The typical types of cracks are longitudinal, transverse, crater, underbead, and toe cracks. 縱向裂紋、橫向裂紋、火口裂紋、焊道下裂紋和焊趾裂紋,Crack in a Weld Bead,Figure 29.9 Crack in a weld bead, due to the fact that the two components were not allowed to contract after the weld was c

26、ompleted.,These cracks generally result from a combination of the following factors: 產(chǎn)生裂紋的原因 Temperature gradients（溫度梯度） that cause thermal stresses in the weld zone; Variations in the composition（成分不均勻） of the weld zone that cause different rates of contraction; Embrittlement of grain boundaries（晶界

27、脆化）, caused by the segregation（隔離） of such elements as sulfur（硫） to the grain boundaries as the solid-liquid boundary moves when the weld metal begins to solidify; Hydrogen embrittlement（氫脆）; Inability of the weld metal to contract during cooling. 冷卻過程中焊縫不能收縮,Cracks are classified as hot or cold. 熱裂

28、紋與冷裂紋 Hot cracks occur while the joint is still at elevated temperatures. Cold cracks develop after the weld metal has solidified. The basic crack-prevention measures are the following: Change the joint design, to minimize stresses from shrinkage during cooling; Change the parameters, the procedures

29、, and the sequence of the welding process; Preheat the components to be welded; Avoid rapid cooling of the welded components.,29.3.6 Lamellar Tears （層狀撕裂） because of the alignment of nonmetallic impurities and inclusions, stresses in the thickness direction （厚度方向存在非金屬夾雜層） 29.3.7 Surface Damage （表面?zhèn)?/p>

30、） spatter, arc strikes （飛濺，電弧沖擊）,29.3.8 Residual Stresses 殘余應(yīng)力 Because of localized heating and cooling during welding, expansion and contraction of the weld area causes residual stresses in the workpiece. Residual stresses can cause the following defects: distortion, warping, and buckling of the we

31、lded parts; 焊件扭曲 stress-corrosion cracking; 應(yīng)力腐蝕開裂 further distortion; reduced fatigue life. 降低疲勞壽命,Figure 29.10 Distortion of parts after welding: (a) butt joints; (b) fillet welds. Distortion is caused by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different parts of the welded assembly.,Dis

32、tortion after Welding,Residual Stresses developed during welding,Figure 29.11 Residual stresses developed during welding of a butt joint.,The type and distribution of residual stresses in welds,The reason for the producing of residual stresses: When two plates are being welded, a long narrow zone is

33、 subjected to elevated temperatures, while the plates as a whole are essentially at ambient temperature. After the weld is completed, and as time elapses, the heat from the weld zone dissipates laterally into the plates, while the weld area cools. The plates thus begin to expand longitudinally while

34、 the welded length begins to contract. These two opposing effects cause residual stresses that are distributed as shown in fig.29.11b. Note that the magnitude of the compressive residual stresses in the plates diminishes to zero at a point far away from the weld area. Because no external forces are

35、acting on the welded plates, the tensile and compressive forces represented by these residual stresses must balance each other.,29.3.9 Stress Relieving of Welds Preheating. Preheating reduces distortion by reducing the cooling rate and the level of thermal stresses. This technique also reduces shrin

36、kage and possible cracking of the joint. Peening , hammering or surfacing rolling of the weld bead area These processes induce compressive residual stresses, which reduce or eliminate tensile residual stresses in the weld. Heat treated after welding Heat treated by various other techniques in order

37、to modify other properties also help to relieve stresses These post-welding techniques include the annealing, normalizing, quenching, and tempering of steels, et al.,29.4 Weldability (可焊性) The weldability of a metal is usually defined as its capacity to be welded into a specific structure that has c

38、ertain properties and characteristics and will satisfactorily meet service requirements.,Weldability is decided by materials, design and manufacture,Weldability involves a large number of variables，so generalizations are difficult.,the material characteristics of base metal and the filler metal the

39、alloying elements the impurities the inclusions the grain structure the processing history the effects of melting and solidification and the consequent micro-structural changes mechanical and physical properties strength toughness ductility notch sensitivity elastic modulus specific heat melting poi

40、nt thermal expansion surface tension characteristics of the molten metal and corrosion resistance,Surface preparation Welding process Welding conditions shielding gases、 fluxes， the moisture content of the coatings on electrodes， welding speed welding position， cooling rate， preheating post welding

41、techniques as stress relieving and heat treating,Weldability of various metal and alloys,Plain-carbon steels excellent for low-carbon steels , fair for medium-, poor for high- Low-alloy steels High-alloy steels good under well-controlled conditions Stainless steels Aluminum alloys high rate of heat

42、input Copper alloys Magnesium alloys protective shielding gas and flux Nickel alloys Titanium alloys proper use of shielding gases Tantalum （鉭） Tungsten Molybdenum Niobium（鈮） See TABLE 29.1 in the book,Overview of Commercial Joining Processes,Overview of Commercial Joining Processes (cont.),Overview

43、 of Commercial Joining Processes (cont.),29.5 Testing welded joints （焊接檢驗(yàn)） The quality of a welded joint is established by testing. 29.5.1 Destructive techniques Mechanical property test Chemical analysis Microstructure examination,Figure 29.12 Two types of specimens for tension-shear testing of wel

44、ded joints.,Figure 29.13 (a) Wrap-around bend test method. (b) Three-point bending of welded specimens-see also Fig. 2.11.,Testing of Spot Welds,Figure 29.14 (a) Tension-shear test for spot welds. (b) Cross-tension test. (c) Twist test. (d) Peel test; see also Fig. 30.8.,29.5.2 Nondestructive techni

45、ques visual method radiographic method magnetic-particle method liquid-penetrant method ultrasonic testing method.,29.6 Weld design and process selection Consideration on weld joint and process selection: Material characteristics; the configuration of the components or structure to be welded, and th

46、eir thickness and size； the methods used to manufacture the components； the service requirements, such as the type of loading and the stresses generated； the location，accessibility，and ease of welding； the effects of distortion and discoloration； the appearance； the costs involved in the edge prepar

47、ation，the welding，and the post-processing of the weld，including those from machining and finishing operations.,Welding Design Guidelines Always make a right joint design,Figure 29.15 Design guidelines for welding. Source: J. G. Bralla (ed.), Handbook of Product Design for Manufacturing. Copyright 19

48、86, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission.,General design guidelines may be summarized as follows: Product design should minimize the number of welds, because welding can be costly unless automated. Weld location should be selected so as to avoid excessive stresses or stress concentra

49、tions in the welded structure, and secondarily for appearance. Components should fit properly before welding. Some designs can avoid or minimize the need for edge preparation. Weld-bead size should be kept to a minimum, to conserve weld metal. Weld location should be selected so as not to interfere

50、with further processing of the part or with its intended use and appearance.,Standard Identification and Symbols for Welds,Figure 29.16,Weld Design Selection,Figure 29.17,Summary The metallurgy of the welded joint is an important aspect of all welding processes, because it determines the strength an

51、d toughness of the joint. The welded joint consists of solidified metal and a heat-affected zone; each has a wide variation in microstructure and properties, depending on the metals joined and on the filler metals. Because of severe thermal gradients in the weld zone, distortion, residual stresses,

52、and cracking can be a significant problem. Metals and alloys can be welded and joined by a variety of processes. Their weldability depends greatly on their composition, on the type of welding operation involved, and on the control of welding parameters. Important considerations include the joint des

53、ign, the surface preparation, the protective atmosphere, the appearance and quality of the weld, and the subsequent testing of welded joints for safety and reliability. General guidelines are available to help in the initial selection of suitable and economical welding methods for a particular appli

54、cation.,Trend The characteristics and properties of the welded joint for newly developed high-strength alloys are under continued study. Quality assurance and joint reliability continue to be important topics in welding processes and their development. Welding techniques for aluminum aerospace struc

55、tures and for newly developed alloys are under continued development. Methods for nondestructive evaluation of welded joints continue to be an important area of research. Especially important is the reinspection of existing welded structures that may have been subjected to stress corrosion and/or fa

56、tigue, such as aging aircraft.,30 Brazing, Soldering, Adhesive-bonding, and Mechanical Fastening Processes 30.1 Introduction This chapter is concerned with two joining processes ( brazing and soldering ) which permit lower temperatures than those required for welding. Filler metals are first placed

57、in or supplied to the joint; they are then melted using an external source of heat. Upon solidification, a strong joint is obtained. Brazing and soldering are distinguished by temperature. Temperatures for soldering are lower than those for brazing, and the strength of a soldered joint is much lower

58、.,30.2 Brazing Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is placed at or between the faying surfaces to be joined, and the temperature is raised enough to melt the filler metal but not the workpieces. The molten metal fills the closely fitting space by capillary action（毛細(xì)管作用）. Upon coolin

59、g and solidification of the filler metal, a strong joint is obtained. Filler metals used for brazing melt above 450o C. The temperatures employed in brazing are below the melting point of the metals to be joined. (450solidus temperature of filler metal) * Wetting characteristics , joint clearance (gap) and capillary action * Melting（溶解）, diffusion, metallurgical changes. * Flux,Figure 30.1 Brazing principle,30.2.1 Filler metal (釬料) Several filler