新聞傳播學(xué)論文-ECONOMICLIBERALIZATIONANDPOLITICALCONSERVATISMASREFLECTEDINCHINASMEDIADEVELOPMENT(1978-PRESENT)INTRDOCTIONDuringthepast20years,Chinahasbeenundergoingthegreatestchangesinitshistory,earmarkedbyrapideconomicgrowth.In1997,theannualincomeofChineseresidentsreachedanaverageequivalenceof660USdollars,anannualincreaseofabouteighttimesthanthatin1990(Xie,1998).Theincrease,thoughlowascomparedwiththewesternstandard,isremarkableconsideringthefactthatChinahasalargepopulationbaseofmorethan1.2billion.Therapideconomicgrowthhasnotonlyboostedthewholenationbutpromotedthedevelopmentofitsmediasystemaswell.In1978,Chinahadonly32televisionstationsand93radiostations(Chan,1994)；thenumberhasjumpedto2,000and1,416respectivelyin1997whiletheregularaudiencesizehasincreasedfrom36.1%in1980to84.2%in1996forradioand30%in1980to86.3%in1996fortelevision(Xie,1998).ThenumberofnewspapersinChinahasalsorisenfrom186in1978to2,163in1996,anincreaseofalmost12times,whilejournalshavealsoflourishedinChina,withitsnumberexpectedtobe930in1978upto8,135in1997.Advertising,onceconsideredthecapitalisttaboo,hasalsoseenfastdevelopmentduringthisperiod.Sinceitsdebutin1979,thetotaladincomeoftheabovefourmediahasbeenincreasingatarateoftentimeseveryfiveyears,reaching18.28billionRMByuanin1996.(Xie,1998).ThischapteraimstodiscussthemediadevelopmentinChinasince1978topresent,whichcanbedividedintotwoperiods,characterizedbyacombinationofeconomicliberalizationandpoliticalconservatism.IntheFirstPeriod(1978-1990),despitethebackandforwardswings,mediadevelopmentinChinahasbeenconsistent.IntheSecondPeriod(1991-present)whenthemarketeconomyconceptgainedrecognition,thecompetitiveconsciousnesshasbecomedominantamongtheChinasmediasystem,whichhasbroughtaboutchangesunprecedentedinthe5,000yearsofChina.ThemediadevelopmentinShanghai,thedragonheadofChina,hasbeentakenasashowcase,todiscussthetrendsinthemediadevelopmentandtheimpactofeconomicmomentumandpoliticalorientationinthewholeprocess.BACKBROUNDPolitically,themediainChinastillremaininaCommunistConcept(Merrill,1983)asdefinedinthetraditionalFourTheoriesofPress.TheChinesemedia,ownedandoperatedbytheState,areregardedastheorgansoftheCommunistPartyofChinaandthegovernment,notthewatchdogofthegovernmentasisthecaseintheU.S.(Streitmatter,1994).ThefreedomofpressintheWesternsense,thoughtdiscussedalotrecently,isstillparticlesintheair,somethingthatisyettocome(Lee,1990).However,intermsofitseconomy,themediadonotfitintotheCommunistConceptonlyanymore.TheymayfallmorecoherentlyintotheDevelopmentConcept,acombinationoftheAuthoritarianandCommunisttheories(Stevenson,1994).ThistendencyhasbecomemoreobviousintheSecondPeriod(1991-present)whenthemediainChinaareendowedwithakindofdualfunctions:continuetobethevoiceofthegovernment(thepoliticalconservatism)whilebecomingthevoiceofthemarketplaceaswell(economicliberalization).Whileitistruethatthegovernmentstillexercisescontroloverthemediasystem,anotiontowhichmostwesternerswouldobject,thecontrolitselfdoesnotnecessarymeanthestagnationofthemediasystemitself.Infact,reasonablecontrolcanencouragethedevelopmentofthemediasystem(Xie1998),ashasbeendemonstratedbythepracticeofChinainthepast20years.FIRSTPERIODWITHTHREEPHASES(1978-1990)MediadevelopmentinChinaintheFirstPeriodfrom1978to1990canfurtherbediscussedinthreephasesfeaturedbypoliticalcampaignswhichaimedtoreininmediadevelopment,thussignalingtheendofeachphase,butlaidthefoundationforthemediadevelopmentinthefollowingphase.Thefirstphasebeganin1978andendedin1984whenthecampaignagainstSpiritualPollutionstarted.Thesecondphaselastedfrom1985to1986whenthebrakewasappliedduringthecampaignagainstBourgeoisLiberalization.Thethirdphasereacheditsclimaxin1989whenthegovernmentcrackeddownonthestudentsmovementandfoughtagainstpeacefulevolutionbyWesterncountries(Chu,1994).Thoughintendedtoreininthemedia,eachofthesepoliticalcampaignshasstimulatedratherthansuppressedthemediadevelopmentineachphase.Infact,mediadevelopmentwasacceleratedonanescalatingscaleineachphaseandusuallywascoupledwithrenewedemphasisintheliberalizationprocess.FirstPhase(1978-84)Theyearof1978isawatershedforChinesepoliticsandmediadevelopment(Lee,1994).Astrategicshiftwasproclaimedasthenationbegantoadoptanopenandreformpolicythataimedtomodernizethecountry.OneimmediateanddramaticmediachangewastheeliminationofthepompousreportingstyleoftheCulturalRevolution(1966-1976),summedupinthephrasefalsehood,exaggeration,andemptytalk(Polumbaum,1990).ChinesemediasuchasthePeoplesDaily,thepartysmouthpiece,calledforshorternewsreportsandamorelivelystylewithtimelinesstocovergrowingeconomicactivities.Theincreasedvolumeofinformationinmediaisanothersignofprogressinthisphase.ThePeoplesDailytooktheleadtoincreaseitspagesfromfourtosixin1978andthentoeightin1980,whilethenumberofmagazinesandnewspapersrosegreatlyfrom1978to1984,asshowninTable1.Table1YearMagazinesTotalPrintedSheets(100million)NewspapersTotalPrintedSheets(100million)197822.7113.5197930.1123.0198036.7141.7198145.4133.6198246.0129.1198352.5142.7198464.3162.3Source:ChinaJournalismYearbooks(variousyears)(Chu,1994)Besides,advertisingbegantoappearinChinesemediaforthefirsttimeafterthelongsilenceinthe“CulturalRevolution,”althoughitdidnotgetintofullswinguntilafter1990.ChinasfirstTVad,moreofanannouncementthananad,madeitsdebutinShanghaionJanuary28,1979(Guo,1993).Theadforaherbalwinelastedaboutoneminuteand35seconds,toolongbytheWesternnorm,butitrepresentsthestartofChinasTVadindustry.Meanwhile,journalismeducationalsoexpandedrapidly(Polumbaum,1990)intheearly1980stomeettheincreasingdemandofmediadevelopmentandtoaccelerateinformationflow,badlyneededfortheeconomicreforms.Thenumberofjournalismteachersandundergraduatestudentsincreasedalmostfourtimesfrom1980to1984whilethenumberofgraduatestudentsremainedthesame(Guo,1993).Whatsmore,Chinastartedfiveinternationaljournalismprograms1983whichintegrateEnglishlanguagetrainingintojournalismeducation.Thesix-yearprogramsexposedstudentstoawidevarietyofWesternjournalismconceptsundertheirEnglishspeakingjournalismprofessors.Theseopen-mindedstudentshavenowconstitutedamajorreformforcetopushforwardmediadevelopmentinChina.SecondPhase(1985-86)Followingthecampaignagainstspiritualpollutionin1984,Chinesemediaweresilencedforawhile,especiallyafterthen-PartyGeneralSecretaryHUYaobangsspeechin1985,whichemphasizedthemediaroleastheorgansofthegovernment(Polumbaum,1990).However,itseemedthatthepartyleadershiponlypaidlipserviceasitstilltoleratedliberalideasinmediapracticessuchasindependenteditorials.Meanwhile,mediapractitionersaskedfor“afreehand”inthemediacontent,whichwassupportedbythePublicityDepartment(Polumbuam,1990),theChinesecounterpartofU.S.InformationAgency.OnemajortrendtowardliberalizationinthisphasewasaformalrecognitionoftheentertainmentfunctionofmediainthenationsSeventhFive-YearPlan.Thefocusonentertainmentcoincidedwiththerapiddevelopmentoftelevision,apowerfulmediumofentertainment.Infact,televisiondevelopmentandthefocusonentertainmentreinforcedeachotherintheirmutualgrowthduringthisphase.Since1985,entertainmenthasbecomeaninseparablepartofmostChineseTVstations.TVentertainmentprogramsusuallyincludemusic,opera,literature,varietyshows,balladsinging,acrobaticshowsaswellasTVdramas.ForShanghaiTelevisionStation,entertainmentprogramscomprisedover60%ofallairtimein1986(Guo,1993).Oftheentertainmentfare,TVdramaisthemostpopular.After1983,TVdramas,producedandaired,sawanexponentialspeed.ForeignTVdramasalsobegantoappearonChinesescreens.In1986,theChinesedubbedWaltDisneycartoonseries“MickeyMouseandDonaldDuck”becameanationalfavoriteassoonasitwasbroadcastovertheCentralChinaTelevisionStation(CCTV).Infact,foreignTVdramasweregenerallypreferredastherewerefewhigh-qualitydomesticTVseriesduringthisphase.InanationalsurveybyCCTVin1987,72percentoftherespondentsfavoredforeigndramas(Yu,1992).In1983,asthenationdecidedtobuildanationwidetelevisionsystembytheendofthiscentury,stateexpendituresontelevisionbegantoincrease.In1985,theexpenditurejumpedto1,780millionyuan(over$210million)ascomparedwith670millionyuan($83million)in1980(Lee,1994).Thepouringfinancialresourcesledtorapidtelevisiondevelopmentinthisphase.ThenumberofTVstationsin1986wasalmostsixtimesthatin1983whileTVsetownershipper100householdsrosefrom88%in1983to103%in1986andtheTVaudiencesizeexpandedfrom400millionin1983to580millionin1986(Yu,1990).ThirdPhase(1987-90)Thisphase,studiedmeticulouslyintheWesternworld,sawthemostdramaticsocialchangesinChina,whichresultedfromthemediadevelopmentitself.Whilemaintainingtheliberalizingtrendsinthefirsttwophases,Chinasmediasysteminthisphasegainedgreatermomentum,tryingtoobtainfreedomofpressandpoliticalindependenceratherthanjustpetitioningforthemintheprevioustwophases.Actionforindependenceanddemocracybecamearealityratherthanjustlipservice.WorldEconomicHerald