1 EnglishEnglish Lexicology Lexicology 英語詞匯學(xué)英語詞匯學(xué) LexicologyLexicology 詞匯學(xué) 詞匯學(xué) is a branch of linguistics inquiring into the origins and meanings of words TheThe NatureNature andand ScopeScope ofof EnglishEnglish lexicologylexicology English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents their semantic structures relations historical development formation and usages TheThe subjectssubjects thatthat EnglishEnglish LexicologyLexicology correlatedcorrelated withwith andand extentextent toto English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology 形態(tài)學(xué) semantics 語義學(xué) etymology 詞源學(xué) stylistics 文體論 and lexicography 詞典學(xué) TheThe reasonreason forfor a a studentstudent toto studystudy EnglishEnglish lexicologylexicology According to the textbook English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word meaning and enable them to organize classify and store words more effectively The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem solving ability and efficiency of individual study ChapterChapter 1 Basic1 Basic conceptsconcepts ofof wordswords andand vocabularyvocabulary WordWord 詞的定義 詞的定義 A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function 1 a minimal free form of a language 2 a sound unity 3 a unit of meaning 4 a form that can function alone in a sentence SoundSound andand meaningmeaning 聲音與意義 聲音與意義 almost arbitrary no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself SoundSound andand formform 讀音和形式 讀音和形式 不統(tǒng)一的四個原因 1 the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans which does not have a separate letter to represent each other 2 the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years 3 some of the difference were creates by the early scribes 4 the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary VocabularyVocabulary 詞匯 詞匯 all the words in a language make up its vocabulary ClassificationClassification ofof EnglishEnglish WordsWords ByBy useuse frequency basicfrequency basic wordword stock nonbasicstock nonbasic vocabularyvocabulary ByBy notion contentnotion content words functionalwords functional wordswords ByBy origin nativeorigin native words borrowedwords borrowed wordswords TheThe basicbasic wordword stockstock 基本詞匯 基本詞匯 is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV it is the most 2 important part of vocabulary TheThe FundamentalFundamental FeaturesFeatures ofof thethe BasicBasic WordWord Stock Stock 基本詞匯的特征基本詞匯的特征 1 All National character 全民通用性 most important 2 Stability 相 對穩(wěn)定性 3 Productivity 多產(chǎn)性 4 Polysemy 多義性 5 Collocability 可搭 配性 沒有上述特征的沒有上述特征的 words words 1 Terminology 術(shù)語 2 Jargon 行話 3 slang 俚語 4 Argot 暗語 5 Dialectal words 方言 6 Archaisms 古語 7 Neologisms 新詞語 Neologisms means newly created words or expressions or words that have taken on new meanings email ContentContent words notionalwords notional wordswords 實詞實詞 cloud run walk never five frequently andand functionalfunctional words emptywords empty wordswords 虛詞虛詞 on of and be but NativeNative WordsWords andand BorrowedBorrowed WordsWords NativeNative wordswords 本族語詞 本族語詞 known as Anglo Saxon words 50 000 60 000 are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes mainstream of the basic word stocks Two other features 1 neutral in style 2 frequent in use BorrowedBorrowed words Loanwords Loan wordswords 外來語詞 外來語詞 words taken over from foreign languages 80 of modern EV 4 4 TypesTypes ofof loanloan words words 1 denizens 同化詞 shirt from skyrta ON 2 aliens 非同化詞 外來詞 are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling kowtow CH 磕頭 3 translation loans 譯借詞 按其他語言方式組成英語 long time no see from China 4 semantic loans 借義詞 they are not borrowed with reference to the form but their meanings are borrowed ChapterChapter 2 2 thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe EnglishEnglish VocabularyVocabulary TheThe Indo EuropeanIndo European LanguageLanguage Family Family 印歐語系印歐語系 The Eight Groups in Indo European Family of Languages 8 大印歐語群 The Eastern set 1 The Balto slavic Group 波羅的 斯拉夫語族 Russian Bulgarian Polish Czech etc 2 The Indo Iranian Group 印度 伊朗語族 Hindi Bengali Persian etc 3 The Armenian Group 亞美尼亞語族 Armenian 4 The Albanian Group 阿爾巴尼亞語族 Albanian The Western set 5 The Hellenic Group 古希臘語族 Greek 6 The Italian Group 意大利語族 Latin Romance languages French Italian Spanish portuguese Romanian etc 7 The Celtic Group 凱爾特語族 Irish Welsh Breton etc 8 The Germanic Group 日耳曼語族 Flemish German Dutch Scandinavian Norweigian Swedish Danish Icelandic etc TheThe ThreeThree StagesStages ofof DevelopmentDevelopment ofof thethe EnglishEnglish Vocabulary Vocabulary 1 Old English 450 1100 vocabulary 50 000 to 60 000 was I high inflected language 2 Middle English 1150 1500 retaines much fewer inflections 3 3 Modern English 1500 up to now in fact more than 25 of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages In Modern E words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections English has evolved from a synthetic language Old English to the present analytic language ModesModes ofof VocabularyVocabulary Development Development 詞匯的發(fā)展模式詞匯的發(fā)展模式 1 creation 創(chuàng)造新詞 the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely toots affixes and other elements 最重要方式 2 semantic change 舊詞新義 does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words 3 borrowing 借用外來詞 constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant ChapterChapter 3 3 WordWord FormationFormation I I Morpheme Morpheme 詞素詞素 the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph Allomorph 詞素變體詞素變體 is a different variant form of a morpheme differ in phonological and spelling form but at the same in function and meaning TypeType ofof Morpheme Morpheme 詞素的分類詞素的分類 1 Free Morphemes 自由詞素 have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself independent 2 Bound Morpheme 粘著語素 A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself Bound Morpheme includes two types 1 bound root 粘附詞根 2 Affix 詞綴 Affixes can be put into two groups 1 Inflectional affixes 屈折詞綴 affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional thus known as inflectional morphemes 2 Derivational affixes 派生詞綴 A prefix A prefix comes before words B suffix An adjective suffix 形容詞后綴 that is added to the stem whatever class is belongs to the result will be an adjective Free Morpheme free root 自由詞根 Morpheme 詞素 Bound root prefix bound derivational affix suffix inflectional RootRoot andand stemstem 詞根和詞干 詞根和詞干 The differences between root and stem A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme 4 in a word with inflectional morphemes can be further analyzed it sometimes could be a root ChapterChapter 4 4 Word FormationWord Formation II II 構(gòu)詞法構(gòu)詞法 1 Affixation1 Affixation 詞綴法詞綴法 Derivation 派生法 the formation of words by adding word formaing or derivational affixes to stem 1 Prefixation 前綴法 It s the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems 1 Negative prefixes 否定前綴 un non in dis a il ir im etc disobey not obey 2 Reversative prefixes 逆反前綴 un de dis etc unwrap open 3 Pejorative prefixes mis 貶義前綴 mis mal pseudo etc misconduct bad behaviour 4 Prefixes of degree or size 程度前綴 arch extra hyper macro micro mini out over sub super sur ultra under ect overweight 5 Prefixes of orientation and attitude 傾向態(tài)度前綴 contra counter anti pro etc anti nuclear 6 Locative prefixes 方位前綴 extra fore inter intra tele trans etc extraordinary more than ordinary 7 Prefixes of time and order 時間和順序前綴 fore pre post ex re etc monorail one rail 8 Number prefixes 數(shù)字前綴 uni mono bi di tri multi poly semi etc bilingual concerning two languages 9 Miscellaneous prefixes 混雜前綴 auto neo pan vice vice chairman deputy chairman 2 Suffixation 后綴法 It s the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems 1 noun suffixes 2 adjective suffixes 3 Adverb suffixes 4 verb suffixes 2 Compounding2 Compounding 復(fù)合法復(fù)合法 alsoalso calledcalled compositioncomposition Compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Compounds are written in three ways solid 連寫 airmail hyphenated 帶連字符 air conditioning and open 分開寫 air force air raid Formation of compounds 復(fù)合詞的形式 1 noun compounds e g air plane airplane flower pot flower pot 2 adjective compounds e g acid head acid head 3 verb compounds e g house keep housekeep 3 Conversion3 Conversion 轉(zhuǎn)類法轉(zhuǎn)類法 Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class 功能轉(zhuǎn)換 又叫零派生 functional shift zero 5 derivation 4 Blending4 Blending 拼綴法拼綴法 Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word e g motor hotel motel smoke fog smog formula translation FORTRAN 5 Clipping5 Clipping 截短法截短法 Clipping is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead e g plane from airplane phone from telephone 四種形式 1 Front clippings 刪節(jié)前面 phone from telephone 2 Back clippings 刪節(jié)后面 dorm from dormitory 3 Front and back clippings 前后刪節(jié) flu from influenza 4 Phrase clippings 短語刪節(jié) pop from popular music 6 Acronymy6 Acronymy 首字母縮寫法首字母縮寫法 Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms 1 Initialism 首字母縮寫詞法 initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter e g BBC for British Broadcasting corporation 2 Acronym 首字母拼音法 Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word E g TEFL teaching English as a foreign language 7 Back formation7 Back formation 逆生法 逆構(gòu)詞 逆生法 逆構(gòu)詞 Back formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation It s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes greed from greedy 8 Words8 Words FromFrom ProperProper Name Name 專有名詞轉(zhuǎn)成法專有名詞轉(zhuǎn)成法 Names of people places book and tradenames e g sir watt siemens 人名 watt 瓦特 電功率單位 ChapterChapter 5 5 WordWord MeaningMeaning TheThe meaningsmeanings ofof Meaning Meaning 意義 的意義 ReferenceReference 所指 It is the relationship between language and the word It is the arbitrary and conventional It is a kind of abstraction yet with the help of context it can refer to something specific ConceptConcept 概念 which is beyond language is the result of human cognition 認(rèn)識 reflecting the objective world in the human mind SenseSense 意義 It denotes the relationship inside the language The 6 sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language MotivationMotivation 理據(jù) It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning 1 Onomatopoeic motivation 擬聲理據(jù) words whose sounds suggest their meaning for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning E g bang ping pong ha ha 2 Morphological motivation 形態(tài)理據(jù) multi morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines E g airmail miniskirt 例外 black market ect 3 Semantic motivation 詞義理據(jù) refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word E g the foot of the mountain foot 4 Etymological motivation 詞源理據(jù) the history of the word explains the meaning of the word E g pen feather TypesTypes ofof meaning meaning 詞義的類別詞義的類別 1 Grammatical Meaning 語法意義 indicates the grammatical concept or relationships becomes important only in actual context 2 Lexical Meaning 詞匯意義 Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word meaning Lexical meaning has 2 components 內(nèi)容 Conceptual meaning 概念意義 and associative meaning 關(guān)聯(lián)意義 1 Conceptual meaning 概念意義 also known as denotative meaning 外 延意義 is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning 2 Associative meaning 關(guān)聯(lián)意義 is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning 4types 1 Connotative 內(nèi)涵意義 the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning traditionally known as connotations 例如 母親 經(jīng)常與 愛 關(guān)心 溫柔 聯(lián)系起來 2 Stylistic 文體意義 many words have stylistic features which make them appropriate for different contexts 3 Affective 感情意義 indicates the speaker s attitude towards the person or thing in question 這種情感價值觀分兩類 褒義和貶義 appreciative pejorative 4 Collocative 搭配意義 is the part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion ChapterChapter 6 6 Sense Sense relationrelation andand semanticsemantic fieldfield 語義關(guān)系和語義場 PolysemyPolysemy 多義關(guān)系 7 Two approached to polysemy 多義關(guān)系的兩種研究方法 1 diachronic approach 歷時方法 from the diachronic point of view polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word First meaning is the primary meaning the later meanings are called derived meanings 2 synchronic approach 共時方法 synchronically polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time 基本意義是 central meaning 次要意 義是 derived meaning Two processes of development 詞義的兩種發(fā)展類型 1 radiation 輻射型 is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes e g face neck 2 concatenation 連鎖型 is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning e g treacle 3 In radiation each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning In concatenation each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original there is no direct connection in between 4 They are closely related being different stages of the development leading to polysemy Generally radiation precedes concatenation In many cases the two processes work together complementing each other HomonymyHomonymy 同形同音異義關(guān)系 words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling TypesTypes ofof homonyms homonyms 同音同形異義關(guān)系的類別同音同形異義關(guān)系的類別 1 Perfect homonyms 完全同音同形異義詞 words identical both in sound and spelling but different in meaning 2 Homographs 同形異義詞 words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning 最多最常見 3 Homophones 同音異義詞 words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning OriginsOrigins ofof homonymshomonyms 同形同音異義詞的來源同形同音異義詞的來源 1 change in sound and spelling eare ear lang long langian long 2 borrowing feria fair beallu ball baller ball 3 Shortening 縮略 ad advertisement The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes 同音同形異義詞和多義 8 詞的區(qū)別 1 The fundamental difference Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings 2 One important criterion is to see their etymology 詞源 Homonymys are from different sources Polysemant is from the same source 3 The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness 語義關(guān)聯(lián) The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another In dictionaries a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries Rhetoric features of homonyms 同形同音異義詞的修辭特色 As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling particularly homophones they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of say humor sarcasm or ridicule SynonymySynonymy 同義關(guān)系 one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning Types of Synonymy 同義詞的類別 1 Absolute synonyms 完全同義詞 also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all aspects i e both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning including conceptual and associative meanings Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology 2 relative synonyms 相對同義詞 also called near synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality e g change alter vary stagger reel totter strange odd queer idle lazy indolent Sources of synonyms 同義詞的來源 1 Borrowing 借詞 最重要的來源 room chamber foe enemy help aid leave depart wise sage buy purchase 2 Dialects and regional English 方言和地區(qū)英語 3 Figurative and euphemistic use of words 單詞的修飾和委婉用法 occupation profession walk of life dreamer star gazer drunk elevated lie distort of fact 4 Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 與習(xí)慣表達(dá)一致 win gain the upper hand decide make up one s mind finish get through hesitate be in two minds help lend one a hand DiscriminationDiscrimination ofof SynonymsSynonyms 1 difference in denotation 外延不同 Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning rich wealthy work toil want wish 9 desire 2 difference in connotation