1、Chapter 3&4 summary于夢(mèng)婷翻譯方向班 2022417791Chapter 3Morphology -one of the scope of linguistics is instructed in chapter 3. Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. Differe nt rules apply to classify words.First one is part of speech何性.Second

2、one is meaning expressed.Third one isdiffere nt classes.Words canNou nsVerbs卜Adjectives Adverbs Conjunctions Prepositi onsArticlesPronouns 丄lexical words content words ope n class wordsgrammatical wordfunctional words closed class wordsLinguists define word as the smallest free form found in Ianguag

3、e. A free form is simply an element that does not have to occur in a fixed position with respect to its neighboring elements in many cases, it can even appear in isolation. For instanee.The boys left. The plural marking -s is not a free form.The most important componen咅E分of a word structure is the m

4、orphem 詞 素,形態(tài)素t he smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning orfun cti on.Free and bound morpheme -MorphemeA morpheme which can be a word by itself is called free morpheme.自由 詞素IA morpheme that must be attached to ano ther one is a bound morpheme.粘著詞素語(yǔ)素變體The morpheme used to e

5、xpress in defi nite ness in English has two forms: a before a word that beg ins with a consonant and an before a word that beg ins with a vowel. The varia nt 不同的forms of a morpheme are called丿I its allomorphsWe can set out to an alyze the in ternal structure of words from three aspects.1、free and bo

6、und morphemesA morpheme which can be a word by itself is called free morpheme.自 由詞素A morpheme that must be attached to ano ther one is a bound morphenfie粘 著詞素2、Root, affix and stemRoot is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzea without total loss of ide ntity.Stem is the main part of

7、 a word to which affixes are added.Affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only whe n added to ano ther morpheme.3、Derivational and infectional morphemesA derivational morpheme 派生詞素refers to one that creates an entirely new word. It may take the form of prefix or a su

8、ffix. -en -ate -icAn inflectional morpheme 屈 折詞素provides further grammaticalinformation about an existing lexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix.Although there are lots of rules of formation, we can see it morphologically since learning morphology.1、inflection

9、屈折法-ingIt refers to the process of adding an affix to a word or cha nging it in some other way accord ing to the rules of the grammar of a Ian guage.J-ed-er -est-s-s2、compounding復(fù)合構(gòu)詞法rCompo unding refers to the process of conjoi ning two or more free morphemes to form a new word. Eg.bittersweet, ria

10、n bow3、derivation派生法Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category dist inct form that of its bases.4、conversion轉(zhuǎn)化法rf v to tape J1clipping拆分bike 5、abbreviation縮寫(xiě)法2initials and acronyms首字母縮寫(xiě)Initials differ from acronyms in that whereas initials are read letter

11、by letter, acronyms are pronounced (as independent words./3)blending混合z廠+ log blog丿6、back formation反成法New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting an affix thought to be part of the old word. Eg.to begderived from beggar7、n eologism coin age 新語(yǔ)New words can be created to defi

12、ne new objects or ideas.L8、borrowing(借用法)A borrowi ng word refers to a word or phrase which has bee n take n from one Ianguage and used in another Ianguage. Eg.latineducationChapter 4Syntax, a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences is introduced in chapte

13、r 4. First sentence types must be mastered.simple sentenceAccord ing to their structure 乂 coord in ate sentencecomplex sentenceSV/SVO/SVCAccording to the linear order of constituentKSVA/SVOO/SVOC/SVOA LSecond, there are various approaches to syntactic studies.the traditi onal approachthe structural

14、approachthe gen erative approach the functional approachParts of speech1、the traditional approach y= Fun cti on of words categoriesCon cord and gover nment一致性與普通語(yǔ)法tense and aspect時(shí)和體Agreement between words in person, number, gender, and case.Tense A grammatical form connected with verbs, which often

15、 show timeAspect: A category of the verb designating primarily the relation of the action to the passageof time, especially in referenceto completio n, durati on, or repetiti on.2、the structural approachsyn tagmatic and paradigmatic relati ons組合關(guān)系與聚合關(guān)系The syntagmatic relation is a relation between o

16、ne item and others in a sequence or between eleme nts which are all prese nt.The paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other a a particular place in a structure or between one element present present and others obsent.en doce ntric and exoce ntric con str

17、uct ions向心結(jié)構(gòu)與離心結(jié)構(gòu)An en doce ntric con struct ion is one whose distributio n is fun ctio nally equivale nt to one of its con stitue nts which serve as the centre or head of the whole.Typtical endocentric constructions are noun phras,e verb phrase adjective phrase. subtypes: subordi nate and coordi na

18、te con structi ons 主從結(jié)構(gòu)和并列結(jié)構(gòu)The exoce ntric con struct ion is defi ned as a con structi on whose distributio n is fun ctio nally equivale nt to any of its con stitue nts.Typtical exocentric construction is prepositional phrase.Immediate constitute analysis直接成分分析法3、the generative approachCategory ref

19、ers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar fun cti ons in a particular Ian guages. A fun dame ntal fact about words in all huma n Ianguages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes called syn tactic categories, which can gen erally subs

20、titute for one ano ther without loss of grammaticality.1、The most cen tral categories to the syn tactic study are the word-level categories. Here word level categories are divided in to two ki nds：Nou ns(N)Major lexical categories J Verbs(V) Adjective A Preposition P廠 Determiner Det Degree words Deg

21、Minor lexical categoriesQualifier QualAuxiliary Aux I Conjunction Con2、Syn tactic un its that are built around a certa in word category are called phrassne category of which is determ ined by the word category around which the phrase isbuilt. The most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal catego

22、ries are nounphraseNP PP).,verb phrase VP,adjective phrase APand prepositi onal phrasePhrases can con sistof just one word. Phrases that are formed of more tha n one word usually con tai n :headSpecifier -left side of the headCompleme nt -right side of the head3、Grammatical mecha nism that regulates

23、 the arra ngeme nt of eleme nts that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.Eg.the book on the desk NP DetN PPThe XP rule：XP specifier X complemenE4、Specifierspecifierheadcompleme nt 、Seamantically,they help make precise the meaning of the head.Syntactically , they typically mark a phrase boun dary.Specifier Determ inerQualifierD習(xí)文ee僅供參考HeadNVA/Pcompleme ntsPhrase elemefCompleme nts are themselves phrases and provide in formatio n about en tities and location whose existenee is implied by the meaning of the head.kJThe imformation