1、語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程重難點(diǎn)學(xué)習(xí)提示第一章語(yǔ)言的性質(zhì)語(yǔ)言的定義：語(yǔ)言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多產(chǎn)性、移位、文化傳遞和互換性）；語(yǔ)言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、詢問(wèn)、表達(dá)主觀感情、喚起對(duì)方的感情和言語(yǔ)行為）；語(yǔ)言的起源（神授說(shuō)，人造說(shuō)，進(jìn)化說(shuō)）等。第二章語(yǔ)言學(xué)語(yǔ)言學(xué)定義；研究語(yǔ)言的四大原則（窮盡、一致、簡(jiǎn)潔、客觀）；語(yǔ)言學(xué)的基本概念（口語(yǔ)與書(shū)面語(yǔ)、共時(shí)與歷時(shí)、語(yǔ)言與言學(xué)、語(yǔ)言能力與言行運(yùn)用、語(yǔ)言潛勢(shì)與語(yǔ)言行為）；普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)的分支（語(yǔ)音、音位、語(yǔ)法、句法、語(yǔ)義）；語(yǔ)言學(xué)的應(yīng)用（語(yǔ)言學(xué)與語(yǔ)言教學(xué)、語(yǔ)言與社會(huì)、語(yǔ)言與文字、語(yǔ)言與心理學(xué)、人類(lèi)語(yǔ)言學(xué)、神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)、數(shù)理語(yǔ)言學(xué)、計(jì)算語(yǔ)言學(xué)）等。第三章語(yǔ)音學(xué)發(fā)音器官

2、的英文名稱；英語(yǔ)輔音的發(fā)音部位和發(fā)音方法；語(yǔ)音學(xué)的定義；發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)；聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)；聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)；元音及輔音的分類(lèi)；嚴(yán)式與寬式標(biāo)音等。第四章音位學(xué)音位理論；最小對(duì)立體；自由變異；互補(bǔ)分布；語(yǔ)音的相似性；區(qū)別性特征；超語(yǔ)段音位學(xué)；音節(jié)；重音（詞重音、句子重音、音高和語(yǔ)調(diào)）等。第五章詞法學(xué)詞法的定義；曲折詞與派生詞；構(gòu)詞法（合成與派生）；詞素的定義；詞素變體；自由詞素；粘著詞素（詞根，詞綴和詞干）等。第六章詞匯學(xué)詞的定義；語(yǔ)法詞與詞匯詞；變?cè)~與不變?cè)~；封閉詞與開(kāi)放詞；詞的辨認(rèn)；習(xí)語(yǔ)與搭配。第七章句法句法的定義；句法關(guān)系；結(jié)構(gòu)；成分；直接成分分析法；并列結(jié)構(gòu)與從屬結(jié)構(gòu)；句子成分；范疇（性，數(shù)，格）；一致；

3、短語(yǔ)，從句，句子擴(kuò)展等。第八章語(yǔ)義學(xué)語(yǔ)義的定義；語(yǔ)義的有關(guān)理論；意義種類(lèi)（傳統(tǒng)、功能、語(yǔ)用）；里奇的語(yǔ)義分類(lèi)；詞匯意義關(guān)系（同義、反義、下義）；句子語(yǔ)義關(guān)系。第九章語(yǔ)言變化語(yǔ)言的發(fā)展變化（詞匯變化、語(yǔ)音書(shū)寫(xiě)文字、語(yǔ)法變化、語(yǔ)義變化）；第十章語(yǔ)言、思維與文化語(yǔ)言與文化的定義；薩丕爾-沃夫假說(shuō)；語(yǔ)言與思維的關(guān)系；語(yǔ)言與文化的關(guān)系；中西文化的異同。第十一章語(yǔ)用學(xué)語(yǔ)用學(xué)的定義；語(yǔ)義學(xué)與語(yǔ)用學(xué)的區(qū)別；語(yǔ)境與意義；言語(yǔ)行為理論（言內(nèi)行為、言外行為和言后行為）；合作原則。1.語(yǔ)言的普遍特征:任意性arbitrariness雙層Z構(gòu)duality既由聲音和意義結(jié)構(gòu)多產(chǎn)性productivity移位性displ

4、acement:我們能用語(yǔ)言可以表達(dá)許多不在場(chǎng)的東西文化傳播性culturaltransmission2。語(yǔ)言的功能：傳達(dá)信息功能informative人濟(jì)功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娛樂(lè)功能recreatinal元語(yǔ)言功能metalingual3 .語(yǔ)言學(xué)linguistics:包括六個(gè)分支語(yǔ)音學(xué)Phonetics音位學(xué)phonology形態(tài)學(xué)Morphology句法學(xué)syntax語(yǔ)義學(xué)semantics語(yǔ)用學(xué)pragmatics4 .現(xiàn)代結(jié)構(gòu)主義語(yǔ)言學(xué)創(chuàng)始人：Ferdinanddesaussure提出語(yǔ)言學(xué)

5、中最重要的概念對(duì)之一：語(yǔ)言與言語(yǔ)languageandparole,語(yǔ)言之語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)的整體，言語(yǔ)則只待某個(gè)個(gè)體在實(shí)際語(yǔ)言使用環(huán)境中說(shuō)出的具體話語(yǔ)5 .語(yǔ)法創(chuàng)始人：NoamChomsky提出概念語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用competenceandperformance1. Whichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribedisplacement.oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage:a. wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguageb. wecanuseboth'

6、shu'and'tree'todescribethesamething.c. wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresentd. wecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore.2 .Whatisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3 .Thefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?&

7、quot;is_ainformativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.Thedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby_asaussureb.hallidayc. chomskyd. thepragueschool5.Whoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenlanguageandparole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidaydanomymous第二節(jié)語(yǔ)音學(xué)1 .發(fā)音器官由聲帶thevocalcords和三個(gè)回聲腔組成2 .輔

8、音consonant：thereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract.3 .輔音的發(fā)音方式爆破音completeobstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞輔音partialobstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4 .輔音清濁特征voicing輔音的送氣特征aspiration5 .兀首vowel分類(lèi)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)舌翹位置，舌高和嘴唇的形狀6雙元音diphthongs,有元音過(guò)渡vowelglides1. Articulatoryphoneticsmainlystudie

9、s_.a. thephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechb. theperceptionofsoundsc. thecombinationofsoundsd. theproductionofsounds2. Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin_a. theplaceofarticulationb.theobstructionfairstreamc. thepositionofthetongued. theshapeofthelips3. Whatisthecommonfactoroft

10、hethreesounds:p,kta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. Whatphoneticfeaturedistinguishthepinpleaseandthepinspeak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd.nasality5.WhichofthefollowingisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish?a.voicingb.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6 .Thephonologicalfeaturesoftheconsonantka

11、re_a. voicedstopb. voicelessstopc. voicedfricatived. voicelessfricative7 .pisdivverentfromkin_a. themannerofarticulationb. theshapeofthelipsc. thevibrationofthevocalcordsd.thepalceofarticualtion8.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsin_a.aspirationb.nasalityc.obstructiond. voicing第三節(jié)音位學(xué)phonology1 .音位學(xué)與語(yǔ)音學(xué)

12、的區(qū)別：語(yǔ)音學(xué)著重于語(yǔ)音的自然屬性，主要關(guān)注所有語(yǔ)言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音；音位學(xué)則強(qiáng)調(diào)語(yǔ)音的社會(huì)功能，其對(duì)象是某一種語(yǔ)言中可以用來(lái)組合成詞句的那些語(yǔ)音。2 .音位phoneme：最小語(yǔ)音單位3 .音位變體allophones:讀音差別4 .對(duì)比性分布：如果兩個(gè)音段出現(xiàn)在同一個(gè)語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中，而且產(chǎn)生了兩個(gè)不同的單詞，5 .互補(bǔ)性分布；如果兩個(gè)基本相似的音段絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在相同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中，那么它們之間就是互補(bǔ)性分布的關(guān)系，如送氣p絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在s之后，不送氣的p絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在詞首6 .音節(jié)syllable,分為節(jié)首o(hù)nset,節(jié)峰peak,節(jié)尾coda7 .輔音群：一般作為音節(jié)節(jié)首的輔音群不能超過(guò)三個(gè)福

13、音，節(jié)尾不能超過(guò)4個(gè)8 .最小語(yǔ)音對(duì)minimalpairs1. Introduction1.1 WhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.1.2 WhatisLinguistics（語(yǔ)言學(xué)）Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.3.50 meBasicDistinctions（區(qū)分）inLinguistics3.51 SpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple（原貝U）oflinguisticanaly

14、sisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope（范疇）andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.3.52 Descriptive（描述性）orPrescriptive（說(shuō)明性）Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.3.53 Synchronic（共時(shí)）andDiach

15、ronic（歷時(shí)）StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.3.54 Langue（語(yǔ)言）andParole（言語(yǔ)）ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索緒爾）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallt

16、hemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（實(shí)際的）language,orrealizationoflangue.3.55 Competence（能力）andPerformance（行為）Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（發(fā)聲）.4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGeneralling

17、uisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology（音韻學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology（詞法）isthebranchoflinguist

18、icswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax（句法）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics（語(yǔ)義學(xué)）isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics（應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)）isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestud

19、yoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics（歷史語(yǔ)言學(xué)）isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics（人文語(yǔ)言學(xué)）usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtothecultu

20、ralpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics（神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics（數(shù)學(xué)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics（計(jì)算語(yǔ)言學(xué)）isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmat

21、hematicaltechniquesandconceptsareapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.II.Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）1. scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics（發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolv

22、edandhowtheycoordinate（協(xié)調(diào)）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated（調(diào)節(jié)）bytheear,theauditorynerve（神經(jīng)）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics（聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（傳送）betweenmouthandear.2. ThevocalorgansThevocalorga

23、nsmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,（氣流發(fā)生器官）theproducerofvoice（聲音發(fā)生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（聲音共振器官）3. Consonants（輔音）Placesofarticulation（發(fā)音部位）：bilabial,（雙唇）Labiodentals,（唇齒）dental,（齒）alveolar,（齒齦）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-akeolar,（上齒齦）palatal,（上顆）velar,（軟腭）uvular,（小舌）glo

24、ttal（聲門(mén)）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（顫音）lateral,（邊音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4. Vowels（元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising（high,mid,low）,thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue（front,central,back）,andthedegreeofliprounding（rounded,unrounded）I

25、II.Phonology（音韻學(xué)）1. phonemes（音素）：adistinctive（有區(qū)另1J的）soundinalanguage.2. Allophones（音位變體）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.3. Minimalpairs（最小對(duì)立體）：wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.4. Freevariation（自由變異）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment（環(huán)境）,theydoesnotproduceadi

26、fferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.5. Complementarydistribution（補(bǔ)充分類(lèi)）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment.6.Suprasegmentalphonology（超音段音位）：thestudyofphonologicalproperties（性質(zhì)）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyares

27、yllable（音節(jié)）,stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音調(diào)）andintonation（語(yǔ)調(diào)）IV. Morphology（詞法）1. inflection（構(gòu)形法）：thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.（屈折詞綴）2. Word-formation（構(gòu)詞）：theprocesses延程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明詞法關(guān)系）Theyarecompound（合成）andde

28、rivation（派生）.3. Morpheme（詞素）：thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.4. Allomorph（同質(zhì)異象變體）：somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.5. Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,（詞根）affix（詞綴）andstem（詞干）6. Lexicon（語(yǔ)言詞7匚）：initsmostgeneralsense,issynon

29、ymouswithvocabulary.7. Closed-classwords（封閉性）andopen-classwords（開(kāi)放性）：theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple（實(shí)際上）indefiniteorunlimited.8. Wordclass（詞性）：Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.9. Lexeme（詞位）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalangua

30、gethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.10. Idiom（習(xí)語(yǔ)，成語(yǔ)）：Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords（詞序）whichissemantically（語(yǔ)義上）andoftensyntactically（句法上）restricted.（限制）11. Collocation（搭配）：thehabitual（習(xí)慣的）co-occurrences（同時(shí)出現(xiàn)）ofindividuallexicalitems.V. Syntax（句法）1. Positi

31、onalrelationorwordorder（詞序）：thesequential（順序）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.2. Constructionorconstituent（句子結(jié)構(gòu)）：theoverallprocessofinternal（內(nèi)部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.3. Syntacticfunction（句法功能）：therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffun

32、ctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,（修飾語(yǔ)）complements（補(bǔ)語(yǔ)）,etc.4. Category（范疇）：Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.5. Phrase:asingleelementofs

33、tructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.6. Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.7. Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.VI.Semantics1. Conceptualismormentalism（概念主義）：FollowingF

34、.DeSaussure（索學(xué)爾）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指），i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相關(guān)聯(lián)系）2. Mechanism（機(jī)械主義）：Somelinguists,Bloomfield,（布魯費(fèi)爾德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecio

35、ustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproachi（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena.（智力現(xiàn)象）3. Contextualism（語(yǔ)境主義）：Itisbasedonthepresumption（假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.4. Behaviorism（行為主義）：Behavioristsattempttodefine（定

36、義）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation（情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（說(shuō)話）itandtheresponse（反應(yīng)）itcallsforthinthehearer."5. functionalism（功能主義）：functionalistsasrepresented（代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格學(xué)派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.They

37、argue（爭(zhēng)thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解釋?zhuān)ゝromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.6. Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticel

38、ementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy（同義詞）,antonym（反義詞），hyponymy（下層次）Polysemy（一詞多義）andHomonymy（同音異義詞）7. Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1）componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.（意義成分）2）predication（表述）analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumo

39、fthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3）relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.VII.Languagevariation（語(yǔ)言變化）1. Lexicalchange（詞匯的變化）：changesinlexis.2. Invention:（新造詞）newentities.93j3. Compounding-噎合成tBJ）Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.4. Blending:（混合詞）：Itisarelativelycomp