1、Review the chapter of syntaxl these are a few questions on some of points in the chapter of lexicon. Do you think whether the relationship between morpheme and phoneme is one-to-one? How about the relation between morpheme and sememe? What are included in bound morpheme?Syntactic structure句法syntax 研

2、究句子結(jié)構(gòu)，揭示構(gòu)成某一語言句子的內(nèi)在規(guī)則。這些規(guī)則告訴我們詞與詞如何組合成句，句子由什么構(gòu)成。線性順序與層次結(jié)構(gòu)linear order and hierarchical structure英語句子是按一定順序排列的。句子的這種順序是線性順序。改變順序意思會(huì)發(fā)生變化。這種關(guān)系也就是syntagmatic relation or positional relation chain relationIn the way of classification according to the word order, there are totally six possible types of la

3、nguage. They are SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS.各種語言的句子順序是不同的。英語是S-V-O語言，日語、土耳其語等是S-O-V語言，威爾士語和希伯萊等語言是V-S-O語言，也有些語言的主語、動(dòng)詞、賓語的順序是自由的。Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and its signified is

4、arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.The structural linguists regard

5、linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.What is the relation of substitutability? And relation of co-ocurrence?語言是交際的工具，人們在交際中說出的最短的話語至少是一個(gè)句子，這樣才能表達(dá)比較完整的思想。句子按說話的不同目的可以分為陳述句declarative、疑問句interrogative、祈使句imperative和感嘆句exclamatory等不同類型。句子里還可以包含句子。包含在一個(gè)句子

6、里的句子稱為小句。只包含一個(gè)小句的句子稱為簡單句simple；包含兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上小句的句子稱為復(fù)合句。復(fù)合句按句中小句之間的不同關(guān)系分為并列復(fù)合句compound和主從復(fù)合句complex。幾種基本的組合關(guān)系 （離心結(jié)構(gòu)exocentric construction，向心結(jié)構(gòu)endocentric construction）在句子和短語中詞與詞之間的基本組合關(guān)系有以下幾種：主謂關(guān)系，修飾關(guān)系，動(dòng)賓關(guān)系，動(dòng)補(bǔ)關(guān)系，并列關(guān)系在傳統(tǒng)語法中區(qū)分了由詞的語法形式表現(xiàn)出來的兩種主從關(guān)系：一致關(guān)系concord agreement和支配關(guān)系。一致關(guān)系中，從屬詞的語法形式要隨主導(dǎo)詞的語法形式發(fā)生變化。一致關(guān)系

7、主要表現(xiàn)在主語和謂語之間、修飾語和被修飾語之間。句子分析的方法句法分析是對(duì)句子和短語的結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行的分析。語法學(xué)中句法分析的方法主要有兩種，一種是句子成分分析發(fā)，另一種是直接成分分析法。句子成分分析法句子成分分析法是傳統(tǒng)語法中通用的分析句子的方法。這種方法以詞為分析的基本單位，根據(jù)句子和短語中詞與詞之間的關(guān)系，逐個(gè)確定句中的各種成分，然后在根據(jù)句中包含的成分確定句子的結(jié)構(gòu)類型（即句型）。句子成分分析法從詞開始“自下而上，從小到大”地對(duì)句子進(jìn)行分析，因此英語里又稱為“bottom-up”分析法。英語的句子成分通常分為主語、謂語、賓語、定語、補(bǔ)語和狀語。其中賓語又可分為直接賓語和間接賓語；補(bǔ)語又可以分

8、為主語補(bǔ)語和賓語補(bǔ)語。傳統(tǒng)語法從句子成分中分出主要成分和次要成分。主要成分是任何一個(gè)句子都不可缺少的。分析句子首先要找出主要成分，然后再找出從屬于它們的次要成分，這樣一個(gè)句子的結(jié)構(gòu)就一目了然了。英語的簡單肯定助動(dòng)陳述句分為七種主要句型SV Prices rose。SVO Mary enjoyed classical music.SVC Your face seems familiar.SVAdv My sister lives next door.SVOO We wish you happy birthday.SVOC The president declared the meeting op

9、en.SVOAd The doorman showed the guests into the drawing room.除基準(zhǔn)句型外，還有與之對(duì)應(yīng)的各種變換句型，包括：疑問句、祈使句、感嘆句、否定句、 被動(dòng)句、省略句、并列復(fù)合句、主從復(fù)合句、分裂句、外位句、there存在句、have存在句等。直接成分分析法 IC analysis另一種分析句子的方法是結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)（實(shí)際是其中的美國描寫語言學(xué)派Bloomfield）制定的直接成分分析法。這種分析方法從句子出發(fā)，自上而下，從大到小，分析到語素為止，故英語里稱為“top-down”分析法。成分和直接成分語言中的任何表示一定意義的單位，如果它不只

10、包含一個(gè)語素，就是可以分解的，這樣的單位叫做結(jié)構(gòu)體。一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)體內(nèi)包含的較小的結(jié)構(gòu)體和語素都是這個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)體的成分，而一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)體一次可以直接分出的成分則是這個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)體的直接成分。The old man has come to his sons house.直接成分分析法的一個(gè)優(yōu)點(diǎn)是它可以區(qū)別某些歧義現(xiàn)象。例如Chinese fur coat 的層次結(jié)構(gòu)可能是 Chinese fur/ coat , or Chinese / fur coat. 不同的層次結(jié)構(gòu)與意義直接有關(guān)。漢語的“咬死了獵人的狗”也可以有兩種不同的分析，咬死了/獵人的狗，或咬死獵人的/狗。What is the criterion u

11、sed in IC analysis?The criterion used in IC analysis is substitutability: whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. For example, in Poor John ran away, poor John can be replaced by John and ran away by ran without changing the structure, but

12、 poor John ran cannot be replaced by John or any other single word without changing the structure.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, howeve

13、r, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reasons of some ambiguities may be revealed.Conjoining & embeddingHypotactic & paratactic relationsLecture five Mean

14、ing (Semantics & pragmatics)Outlines:What is semantics?What is meaning?Kinds of meaning The traditional approach The functional approach The pragmatic approachSense relationships Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Polysemy and homonymy Sense relations between sentencesSemantic analysis Componential analysis

15、 Predication analysis Relational components Logical elements1. What is semantics?The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. P105語義可以分為詞的意義word meaning 和句子意義sentence

16、meaning. 本世紀(jì)60年代以前，語言學(xué)家只注重研究詞的意義，忽略了句子意義。Philosophy, psychology and linguistics all claim a deep interest in semantics. The philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the world to which they refer and evaluating the condition of tru

17、th and falsehood of such expressions. The psychologists claim a deep interest in understanding the human mind through language. -philosophers: relations bet. linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the world-psychologists: human mind through language-Linguists: the change of word meaning, esp. t

18、he causes and rules of these changes in social and historical perspectives 2. What is meaning?II. Interpretations on Meaning1.Realist: All things called by the same name have some common property.唯實(shí)論：有同樣名稱的事物有共性 2.Nominalist: words are the symbols we use by convention to refer to things 唯名論（指稱論）：約定俗

19、成的名稱而已3.Conceptualism / mentalism 概念論 / 心理論 This is presented by Saussures Sign Theory（1966） and Ogden and Richards Semantic triangle 符號(hào)理論和語義三角理論（1923）1) According Saussure, the linguistic sign consists of a Signifier and Signified 能指（施指）- 所指（受指） a sound image- a concept linked by a psychological bo

20、nd2)According to Ogden and Richard, the symbol of a word signified things by virtue of (by means of, because of) the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language. And the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.That something i

21、s abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.Thought / Reference 相關(guān)(mediated) Concept/sense/Notion 概念 symbolizes refers to symbol/form indirect relationship referent word 詞 - object 事物signifier stands for

22、signifiedcode realitySense may be used in the same way as “connotation” is used in philosophy. It may refer to the properties an entity has. In this usage, “sense” is equivalent to “concept”.e.g. Woman conceptual: human, female, adultdesk-a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which

23、one reads and writesTo explain the meaning of a word by pointing to the thing it refers to. (direct theory)The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. P107conceptual meaning/ sense (both by Leech)-it refers t

24、o the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. P106Every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content, but not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which

25、do not exist in reality. Therefore people suggest that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4Mechanism機(jī)械論 Bloomfield: Define the meaning of word by means of science and chemistrySince one can define the names of minerals in terms of chemistry and mineralogy, one can define

26、 the English word “salt” by way of the expression “sodium chloride” or the symbol “NaCl”. So the nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena. It is restricted to the scientific definition of everything to which language may contribute.5.Contextualism 語境論 The

27、 view is that one can derive (推測) meaning from the observable context or can reduce （還原bring）it to the original context. The situational context情景語境-speaker, hearer, action etc. The linguistic context言語語境-co-occurrence, collocation etc.6.Behaviourism行為論 Behaviourists define the meaning of a language

28、 form asthe situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (Bloomfield, 1933) Bloomfields stimulus-reaction model 刺激反應(yīng)模式 Jill Jack S r s R Stimulus-verbal reaction-verbal stimulus-non-verbal reactionAppleverbal reactionsound wavesnon-verbal reaction of getting

29、 the apple7.Functionalism功能論They argue that meaning could only be interpreted from its use or function in social life.So meaning is variable and is realized at different levels of language.3. kinds of meaning1) the traditional approachFries(1952) presents a traditional distinction between “l(fā)exical”

30、and “structural meaning”. The former is expressed by those “meaningful” parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary associated with the grammar.The latter expresses the distinction between the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of def

31、initeness, tense and number, and the difference between statements, questions and requests.In a word, the total linguistic meaning of any utterance consists of the lexical meanings of the separate plus such structural meanings.德國語言學(xué)家和數(shù)學(xué)家Gottlob Frege 區(qū)分了詞的指稱意義reference 和詞的系統(tǒng)意義sense. 指稱意義是指詞和句子等語言成分跟

32、語言外部世界的關(guān)系；系統(tǒng)意義是指附加意義，指語言成分本身（主要是指詞）之間關(guān)系的意義，它涉及的是語言內(nèi)部關(guān)系，一個(gè)詞的系統(tǒng)意義通過與別的詞的對(duì)照關(guān)系表現(xiàn)出來。例如，ram的指稱意義在于它指世界上為雄性的羊，ewe 的指稱意義在于它指世界上為雄性的羊。如果把ram 和ewe 放在一起對(duì)照比較就會(huì)看出它們的系統(tǒng)意義，它們分別指特定性別的羊。Fatherson, uncle/nephew這兩對(duì)詞的系統(tǒng)意義是表示家庭關(guān)系； wide/narrow, dead/live, buy/sell這幾對(duì)詞的系統(tǒng)意義在于它們表示了反義關(guān)系。2) the functional approachLeechs Clas

33、sification of Meaning 利奇的語義分類1.Conceptual meaning 概念意義 （理性意義 / 外延意義 ）When the world changes, the conceptual meaning will also change.Old English: marshal-the person caring for horsesModern English: top officer or commanderMouse, hardware, monitor, etc. are typical of the change2.Connotative meaning

34、內(nèi)涵意義 It refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in peoples mind.Woman conceptual: human, female, adult connotative: gentle, compassionate, hard-working, fragile, sentimentalOx conceptual: a bull working on the farm connotative: hard-working, no complaints Connotative me

35、aning differs as a result of age, social position, personal experience, etc. For example, Home can be both warm, sweet, comfortable and cold, perplexing. Linguistics as a course is both interesting and boring.3.Social meaning / stylistic meaning 社會(huì)意義 / 文體意義A piece of language conveys about the socia

36、l circumstances of its use.eg. horse-steed(詩體) nag（俚語）4.Affective meaning 情感意義 Affective meaning is concerned with expression of feelings and attitudes of speakers or writers.Using conceptual meaning to express affective meaning Repetition of the words with the same meaning Using connotative meaning

37、 to express affective meaning.eg. He is a fox.(as cunning as a fox) Using intonation and tone to express the speakers feeling.eg. Thank you for your kindness.(It might be ironic.) Using exclamation words to express affective meaning.eg. Alas! Aha! My God etc.5. Reflected Meaning 反映/反射意義 What is comm

38、unicated through association with another sense of the same expression. eg. be pregnant - in a family way 象一家人一樣，不拘禮節(jié)地6.Collocative meaning 搭配意義 What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.The words may have the same conceptual meanings

39、, but need different locations. eg. pretty, handsome漂亮的，英俊的（男人）健美的，溫雅的（女人7.Thematic meaning 主位/主題意義 What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis. eg. Mr Smith donated the prize. The prize was donated by Mr Smith.3) the pragmatic approachBoth Palmer

40、(1976) and Lyons (1977) have suggested that we should draw a distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning, the sentence meaning being directly predictable from the grammatical and lexical features of the sentence, while utterance meaning includes all the various types of meaning that a

41、re not directly related to them.In a sense pragmatics studies how contextual features determine or influence the interpretation of utterances. For example, there will be several possible interpretations to the utterance “John is like a fish” in isolation. But if it is said when John is swimming, it

42、probably means “John swims well”. If it is said at a party, it will be taken to mean John can drink a lot of wine”. On other occasion it can mean “John is as cold as fish”. In any case it is justified to say that contextual factors intervene in semantic interpretation.IV. Sense relationshipsWords ar

43、e in different sense relations with each other. Some words have more similar sense than others. For example, the sense of desk is more closely related to that of table than to chair. And the sense of desk is included in the sense of furniture.Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between on

44、e word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation. 1. Synonymy 同義關(guān)系Synonymy is us

45、ed to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers rely to a great extent on the existence of synonymy for their definitions.But total synonymy is rare. The so-called synonyms are all context dependent. They all differ one way or another.語言學(xué)家Palmer 認(rèn)為真正的或絕對(duì)的同義詞是沒有的，兩個(gè)詞的意思不可能絕對(duì)相同。同

46、義詞在某些方面，比如方言、文體風(fēng)格、感情色彩、搭配限制等方面有所不同。1)They may differ in styles or registers. e.g. formal purchase gentleman pass away, be with God, depart, breath ones last informal buy man die casual/colloquial chap pop off, kick the bucket, be done for2)They may differ in connotations (in their emotive or evaluat

47、ive meanings). Politician & statesman (derogatory & commendatory) Politician 帶有輕蔑之意，含有只為個(gè)人利益或其所屬政黨利益不惜一切的意思 Statesman 只含有贊揚(yáng)之意，指其人精明能干，善于處理國政。 Thrifty & stingy Thrifty: Practicing or marked by the practice of thrift; wisely economical.節(jié)儉的：勤儉操持的或以勤儉為特點(diǎn)的；精明而經(jīng)濟(jì)的 Stingy : the most general, implies absenc

48、e of generosity and often an inclination toward meanness of spirit: 意義最廣，指不慷慨并常表示性格吝嗇的傾向：e.g. She practices economy without being stingy.她奉行一種的不吝嗇的節(jié)儉方式。3)They may differ in dialects of the language. British English: autumn elevator tin sweets sofa biscuit railway baggage American English: fall lift

49、can candy couch cracker railroad luggage4)They may differ also in collocation. a) Rancid & addled 腐敗的、質(zhì)變的 Rancid bacon/ butter/ fat Addled egg/ brains b) Deep water ( no profound water) Deep/ profound sympathyc)汽車:car, automobile, vehicles, motor collocation: motor hotel(motel) automobile insurance

50、汽車保險(xiǎn)As a result of this, there is only a loose sense of synonymy, based on the fact that many words are close in meaning.English is said to be rich in synonyms. Its vocabulary has two sources: Anglo-Saxon and Latin.2. Antonymy The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning: words that are opp

51、osite in meaning are antonyms.We must be careful not allow the term “antonymy” to distract us into thinking that words contrast only on a single dimension: in face they may contrast with other words on a number of dimensions at once.1) complementary antonymy 互補(bǔ)反義關(guān)系it may be regarded as a special cas

52、e of incompatibility holding over two-term sets. It is characteristic of such pairs of lexical items that the denial of the one implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one implies the denial of the other. For example: dead: alive; female: male; absent: present; boy: girl, etc.There i

53、s no intermediate ground between the two.The adjectives in this type cannot be modified by very. They do not have comparative or superlative degrees either.2) gradable antonymy ( this is the commonest type of antonymy)It refers to the feature of those antonyms which are gradable, because there are o

54、ften intermediate forms between the pairs. It shows that the denial of the one does not imply assertion of the other. For example, in the hot/cold pair, one can find intermediate terms such as hot/ warm/cool/cold.The adjectives in this type can be modified by very. They may have comparative and supe

55、rlative degrees.許多分級(jí)反義詞的兩個(gè)詞中，有一個(gè)是有標(biāo)記的marked, 另一個(gè)是無標(biāo)記的 unmarked( the term for the higher degree)， 在提問句中常用無標(biāo)記的詞。如How high is it?,我們一般不用How low is it?來提問?；卮饡r(shí)也常用無標(biāo)記的詞，如Fifty-five feet high, 而不用fifty-five feet low. 3)converse antonymy 逆向反義關(guān)系(relational opposites關(guān)系對(duì)立) (this is special type of antonymy)A q

56、uite different kind of “oppositeness” is found with pairs of words which exhibit reversal of a relationship between items, and is called relational opposites. The members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. One presupposes the other. For example, buy: sell; lend: borrow; parent: child;關(guān)系對(duì)立反義詞在意義上時(shí)相對(duì)稱的。兩個(gè)關(guān)系反義詞在語義上既對(duì)立又互相依存，一方的存在以另一方的存在為前提。3. hyponymy Hypony