1、紅色藍(lán)色-第一次復(fù)習(xí)紫色加粗二號(hào)-第二次復(fù)習(xí)A Detailed Note for Modern LinguisticsChapter 1: Introduction1. Define the following terms:1). Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2). General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3). Applied linguisti

2、cs: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical pr

3、oblems such as the recovery of speech ability.4). Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time is a synchronic study.5). Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study

4、of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeares time is a diachronic study.6). Language competence: The ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. A transforma

5、tional-generative grammar（轉(zhuǎn)化生成語(yǔ)法）is a model of language competence.7). Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language users knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 8). Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of

6、 a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.9). Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application

7、of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.10). Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11). Arbitrariness: （任意性）It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between m

8、eanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12). Productivity: (多產(chǎn)性)Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13). Duality: Language

9、 is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.14). Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, o

10、r future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15). Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead

11、 have to be taught and learned.16). Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationChapter 2: Phonology音系學(xué)1. Define the terms: 1). phonetics: 語(yǔ)音學(xué)Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it

12、is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s languages2). auditory phonetics: 聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)It studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. 3). acoustic phonetics: 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves

13、. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.4). international phonetic alphabet IPA: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.5). ？Broad transcription:寬式標(biāo)音 the transcription with letter-sy

14、mbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one sound. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.6). Narrow transcription: is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription used by the phoneticians in their study of speec

15、h sounds.7). diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.8). Voiceless（清音）: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a conditio

16、n are called voiceless sounds.9). Voicing （濁音）: Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.10). Vowel:元音 the sounds in production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowel

17、s.11). Consonants: 輔音the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.12). phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patter

18、ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.13). phone: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.14). phoneme: 音位a collection of abstract ph

19、onetic features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is represented or realized as a certain phone by a certain phonetic context.15). allophone:音位變體 The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example l and l16)

20、. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.17). Complementary distribution: refers to the relation between two similar phones which are allophones of the

21、same phoneme, and they occur in different environments.18). minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. For example: bin and pin.19). suprasegmental featur

22、es: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone and intonation.20). tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variatio

23、n can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in tone languages, for example, in Chinese.21). intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known a

24、s intonation. For example, English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.Chapter 3: Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)1. Define the following terms:1). Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words an

25、d the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.派生形態(tài)學(xué)2). Inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections3). Derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-fo

26、rmation.4). Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. For example: the word “boyish” consists of two morphemes: “boy” and “ish”.5). Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with o

27、ther morphemes. For example: “help”, “table”, “room” are all free morphemes.6). Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. For example: “-er”, “dis-“, “-less” are all bound m

28、orphemes.7). Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example: the root “geo-“combines with another root “-ology”, we get the word “geology”.8). Affix: m

29、orphemes manifesting various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, such as “-ing”, “-est”, while derivatio

30、nal affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as “-ly”, “dis-“, “un-“. 9). Inflection（屈折）: the manifestation of various grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.10). Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a

31、word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. 11). Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.12). Stem: A stem is the existing f

32、orm to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form himself.13). Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the c

33、ombination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.Chapter 4: Syntax1. Define the following terms: 1). syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other w

34、ords to form grammatical sentences. 2). linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.3). sentence: A sentence is a structurally independen

35、t unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.4). finite clause（定式子句）: a clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the sa

36、me time stands structurally alone. (A simple sentence satisfies the structural requirements of a finite clause.)5). simple sentence: a simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.6). coordinate sentence（并列句）: A coordinate

37、sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”.7). complex sentence（復(fù)合句）: a complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated （合成一體的） into the other. That is, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subord

38、inating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.8). hierarchical structure（層次結(jié)構(gòu)）: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic catego

39、ry of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.9). syntactic category: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or obj

40、ect in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.10). grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a se

41、ntence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom. 11). phrase structure rules: a rewrite rule that allows for the possible combinations of words to form phrases and sentences.12). X-bar theory is

42、a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X (Spec) X (Compl). (In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may we

43、ll capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world. )13). transformational rules: 轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type. 14). D-structure: D- structure is the level of synt

44、actic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure. (Phrase structure rules + the lexiconD-structure Movement rules S-structure)15). S-structure: a level of syntactic representation a

45、fter the operation of necessary syntactic movement16). Move a: a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.Universal Grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.Chapter 5: Sem

46、antics語(yǔ)義學(xué)1. Define the following terms:1). Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 2). Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextual

47、ized. 3). Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4). Synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are clo

48、se in meaning are called synonyms. Eg.Fall-autumn5). Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. table6). Homonymy（同音異義，同形異義）: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identi

49、cal in sound or spelling, or in both.7). Homophones（同音異義）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. e.g. rain/reign.8). Homographs同形異義: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. e.g. tear v. / tear n.9). Complete homonyms: When two words are identical i

50、n both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms. e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.10). Hyponymy（下義關(guān)系）: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general is called a superordinate（上坐標(biāo)詞）,

51、and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. (Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.) e.g. superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, lion, tiger.11). Antonymy: Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning (on different dimensions).12). Componential a

52、nalysis（成分分析法）: Componential analysis is a way proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. For example: the word “man” is analyzed as comprisin

53、g the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.13). Predication analysis（述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析）: It is an approach proposed by British linguist G. Leech for sentential meaning analysis. In semantic analysis of a sentence, predication is the basic unit which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This

54、applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a prediction, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an a

55、rgument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14). The grammatical meaning: The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e., its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language

56、.15). Two-place predication: A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments. Chapter 6: Pragmatics 語(yǔ)用學(xué)1. Define the following terms: 1). Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2). Context: The notion of context is essential t

57、o the pragmatic study of language. It consists of (It is generally considered as constituted by) the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledg

58、e about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.3). Utterance meaning: 話(huà)語(yǔ)意義the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentenc

59、e in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 4). Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.5). Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable;6). Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were se