1、原文： Taxatiion, AAccounnting and TTranspparenccy:The Intteracttion oof Finnanciaal andd Tax Accouuntingg1. IntrroducttionIn the last yearss, ecoonomicc areaas havve connstanttly mooved ttogethher. AAs a cconseqquencee, commpaniees, esspeciaally tthe biig plaayers in thhe marrkets, havee headded toowa

2、rdss usinng thee inteernatiional capittal maarketss and to geet acccess tto stoock exxchangges inn diffferentt juriisdicttions.As a prrerequuisitee, thee prevvailinng intternattionall accoountinng staandardds, bee it IIFRS aand/orr U.S. GAAPP, havve to be foolloweed. Onn the otherr sidee, as tax lle

3、gisllationn is sstill “l(fā)ocaal” annd nott harmmonizeed, thhe commpaniees alwways hhave tto loook forr gettting tthe beest taax envvironmment tthey ccan foor carrryingg on ttheir businnessess. Thee folllowingg artiicle ttries to suummariize shhortlyy the influuence of innternaationaalizattion oon taxx

4、ationn and accouuntingg in ggeneraal andd withh regaard too trannspareency oof taxx effeects iin thee inteernatiional accouunts iin parrticullar. AAs a cconseqquencee of mmore ttranspparenccy, itt is iimporttant tto be awaree of ppossibbilitiies annd bouundariies off exissting influuencess on tthe t

5、aax ratte as well and tto cleearly definne a fframewwork ffor taax plaanningg, whiich noot onlly is in liine wiith leegal rrequirrementts, buut as well with ethiccal sttandarrds, aas eacch inddividuual coompanyy cannnot affford loosiing itts goood repputatiion.2. Taxaation and AAccounnting Twoo Diff

6、ferentt Worllds?2.1 Staatus QQuoAs taxaation is sttill llocal, multtinatiional corpooratioons haave too aliggn bussinesss oppoortuniities and nneeds with findiing thhe suiitablee tax envirronmennt forr doinng bussinesss and struccturinng theeir buusinesss acttivitiies. NNeedleess too say that natioo

7、nal aand innternaationaal rulle of alloccatingg proffits hhas too be ttaken as unnchanggeablee preccondittions, but neverrtheleess taax plaanningg is ccruciaal. Itt is nnot thhe loccal taax ratte, buut thee effeectivee tax burdeen thaat in the eend reeally countts, taaking alwayys thee tax basess as

8、 wwell iinto aaccounnt. Annd theere iss stilll fleexibillity hhow too struucturee the businness aactiviities, e.g. withh regaard too settting uup thee wholle grooup sttructuure, ffinanccing, choossing tthe appproprriate legall formm. Takking tthe coomplexxity oof thee locaal taxx systtems aand thhe

9、shoortcommings of thhe exiistingg doubble taaxatioon treeatiess, thee avoiidancee of ddoublee taxaation is onne of the mmost iimporttant ggoals in thhis coontextt annd it is cllearlyy not gettiing too tax-exemppt, noowheree taxeed “whhite” incomme. Thhere iis no doubtt: Thee key objecctive for ttax

10、pllanninng is to suupportt busiiness. Eachh busiiness decission hhas too makee sensse witthout a loook at the ttax buurden. Howeever, if a businness ddecisiion iss takeen, thhe mosst effficiennt strructurre froom a ttax pooint oof vieew hass to bbe choosen.From thhe vieew of a gloobal pplayerr, andd

11、 as ttax raates aare onnly roough iindicaators for tthe efffectiive taax burrden, the ppolitiical ddemandd withh regaard too taxaation at leeast mmediumm or llong tterm sshouldd cleaarly bbe worrld-wiide haarmoniizatioon of the ttax syystemss. Theen, a fair tax ccompettitionn via tax rrates, not via

12、 ccompleex andd non-transsparennt taxx basees wouuld bee carrried oout. TThereffore, the iindusttry hiighly welcoomes tthe thhoughtts of the EEU Commmissiion toowardss a Coommon Consoolidatted Coorporaate Taax Basse (CCCCTB).Even iff thiss CCCTTB is restrrictedd to MMemberr Stattes off the Europpean

13、 CCommunnity, it woould bbe a bbig sttep foorwardd. Unffortunnatelyy it llooks as iff a loot of the EEC couuntriees takke thiis appproachh not too sseriouus, ass tax revennues mmight be thhreateened. But tthis sshows clearrly thhe neccessitty of a CCCCTB: IIf commpaniees werre taxxed onn theiir EU-w

14、ide consoolidatted inncome, e.g. taxees on non-rrealizzed prrofitss arissing aas a cconseqquencee of iintra groupp trannsactiions wwould be avvoidedd. Traansferr Priccing aadjusttmentss whicch verry oftten leead too doubble taaxatioon wouuld bee at lleast withiin thee EU oobsoleete. TThe reeluctaanc

15、e oof somme Memmber SStatess evenn provves thhe neccessitty: taaxatioon shoould aalwayss and only be baased oon proofits realiized tthrouggh a mmarkett trannsactiion.2.2 OuttlookFortunaately enouggh, thhe jurrisdicction of thhe Eurropeann Courrt of Justiice miight pput prressurre towwards harmooniza

16、ttion: As thhe Couurt taakes tthe baasic pprinciiples of thhe Intternall Markket veery seeriouss, thee Courrt putts alwways eemphassis onn basiic Commmunitty Laww, esppeciallly onn non discrriminaation of ECC resiidentss, freee movvementt of ccapitaal andd freeedom oof esttablisshmentt. As a connseq

17、ueence, a lott of rrestriictingg natiional tax llaws hhas allreadyy beenn challlengeed. Esspeciaally wwith rregardd to ccross bordeer traansacttions, thiss juriisdicttion wwill llead bby itsself oon thee longg run towarrds a forceed harrmonizzationn.Therefoore, iit wouuld frrom thhis pooint oof viee

18、w as well be inn the interrest oof thee EC MMemberr Statees to activvely ssupporrt thee EU CCommisssion towarrds a jointt tax jurissdictiion.In thiss conttext, it iss fairr to ssay thhat soome taaxatioon priinciplles haave deefinittely tto be takenn intoo accoount, even if thhis miight bbe sellf-evi

19、ident: Taxaation must alwayys be basedd on tthe inndividdual aabilitty to pay ttaxes. In GGermanny, thhis prrincipple iss evenn anchhored in thhe Connstituutionaal Laww. As a connsequeence, taxess shouuld onnly bee leviied onn reallized profiits. MMark tto marrket vvaluattion wwould generrally not a

20、adequaately refleect thhe abiility to paay taxxes, aas thee thenn poteentiallly taaxed uunreallized gainss are volattile. Taxattion hhas too be bbased on neet inccome, and nnot onn subsstancee. Bussinesss expeenses must thereefore alwayys be whollly dedductibble. TThis mmeans an unnrestrrictedd loss

21、s carrry forrward as weell.Third, taxattion hhas too be bbased on obbjectiive crriteriia, annd thee accrruals princciple has tto be takenn intoo accoount.Additioonallyy, avooidancce of doublle taxxationn meanns avooidancce nott onlyy of llegal, but as weell off econnomic doublle taxxationn. Theerefo

22、rre, e.g. diividennds shhould be exxcludeed froom taxxable incomme, ass the underrlyingg proffits hhave aalreaddy beeen taxxed inn the handss of tthe diistribbutingg corpporatiion. TThe trreatmeent off capiital ggains shoulld alwways ffolloww the treattment of diividennds. CCapitaal gaiins onn the s

23、ale of paarticiipatioons shhould thereefore be exxempt as weell, aas theey eitther rrepressent aalreaddy taxxed reetaineed earrningss or hhiddenn reseerves whichh mateerialiize annd leaad to taxess in tthe fuuture.From ann accoountinng poiint off vieww, it is faair too say that some counttries by fa

24、r nnot alll ddefinee theiir taxx basiis bassed onn natiional GAAP (prinnciplee thatt the tax bbase ffollowws acccountiing prrincipples; e.g. Germaany). Howevver, tthere existts a ttendenncy too modeernizee the natioonal GGAAP aand too inteegratee thouughts of innternaationaal acccountiing, eespeciia

25、lly IAS/IIFRS aas welll intto thiis moddernizzationn. Thee samee is ttrue wwith rregardd to tthe ECC Direectivees on the AAccounnts annd Connsoliddated Accouunts (4th aand 7tth EC Direcctive).If a mooderniizatioon toook plaace itt is ddefiniitely sure that the mmodernnizatiion wiill bee baseed on IA

26、S/IIFRS aas welll.As, howwever, the targeets off inteernatiional accouuntingg and taxattion ddo nott matcch, thhe priinciplle thaat taxxationn folllows aaccounnting is allways depenndent on thhe undderlyiing loocal GGAAP aand quuestioonablee in ccase oof anyy channges wwith rregardd to tthese princc

27、ipless. Takee as aan exaample Germaany: TThe naationaal acccountss havee beenn so ffar suuitablle forr taxaation as thhe undderlyiing prrincipples hhave ccompliied wiith taaxatioon priinciplles. Especiaally tthe taargetss of ccapitaal maiintenaance, proteectingg the rightts of crediitors and bbeing

28、the iinstruument to deetermiine thhe posssiblee diviidend distrributiions hhave llead tto a bbasis that compllies wwith tthe abbilityy to ppay taaxes aas welll. Onn the contrrary, IAS/IIFRS aare raather a toool forr infoormatiion annd takke theereforre unrrealizzed gaains aas welll intto acccount.If

29、 the Germaan acccountiing prrincipples gget mooderniized ttowardds IASS/IFRSS, theen as a connsequeence tthe prrincipple thhat taax folllows accouuntingg has at leeast ppartiaally tto be givenn up. At leeast, each indivviduall law has tto be revieewed aand evvaluatted acccordiing too its suitaabilit

30、ty forr taxaation.A CCCTBB mustt be bbased on siimilarr viewws. Fiirst, IAS/IIFRS ccan frrom a mere formaal poiint off vieww neveer be takenn as bbasis for ccalcullatingg taxaable pprofitts. A democcraticc authhorizaation of thhe IASSB doees nott exisst. Beesidess, e.gg. Gerrmany appliies thhe priin

31、ciplle of legisslativve sovvereiggnty. Thereefore, a trransfoormatiion innto naationaal laww woulld alwways bbe neccessarry. Taaking IAS/IIFRS aas taxx basee woulld meaan enddless and oongoinng proocessees of adaptting tthe naationaal laww to cchangees in IAS/IIFRS. Seconndly, and mmore iimporttant,

32、 IAS/IIFRS aare frrom a materrial ppoint of viiew inn geneeral nnot suuitablle eitther: The IIAS/IFFRS prrincipples ccan leead too a taaxatioon of unreaalizedd gainns, whhich iis in contrrast tto thee abillity tto payy taxees priinciplle. Thhey coontainn a loot of managgementt judggmentss whicch con

33、ntradiict unniformm tax treattment of alll taxxpayerrs as the ttax baasis wwould then depennd on indivviduall judggment. And partiially, a taaxatioon of mere profiit proojectiions wwould be thhe ressult. Howevver, IIAS/IFFRS caan be takenn as sstartiing pooint ffor taaxatioon: Eaach sttandarrd shoou

34、ld tthen bbe evaaluateed wheether or noot it is coompliaant wiith baasic ttaxatiion prrincipples. This judgmment sseems now tto be conseensus on ECC leveel.When deescribbing tthe taax basse, thhe EU Commiissionn tendds eitther tto deffine aa sepaarate indeppendennt taxx balaance ssheet law, or a sep

35、arrate sset off tax ruless thatt defiine thhe taxx basee not basedd on tthe acccountts, buut ratther oon proofits and llossess, witth desscripttion oof inccome, tax-eexemptt incoome, aand deeductiible aand noot-dedductibble buusinesss exppensess.At the momennt, thhe EU Commiissionn seekks a ssolutii

36、on raather basedd on ddefiniing taaxablee proffits aand loosses. Thiss apprroach makess unifformitty on EC leevel mmore llikelyy; howwever, thiss apprroach is moore diifficuult inn appllicatiion foor thee comppaniess, as in thhe endd theyy mustt calcculatee iff therre aree timiing diiffereences comp

37、aared tto acccountiing deferrred ttaxes as weell. BBy filling aa tax balannce shheet ccontrool andd subsstantiiationn of ppotenttial ddifferrencess and the ddeferrred taax asssets/lliabillitiess therreon iis mucch eassier.3. Trannspareency oof thee Inteernatiional Accouunts aand Innfluennce off Tran

38、nspareency oon Taxx Plannning3.1 Acttual vversuss Effeectivee Tax RateAs the tax bburdenn consstituttes a cost factoor to all bbusineess acctivitties, the eeffecttive ttax raate pllays aan impportannt rolle forr manaagemennt, annd nott justt the curreent taax payymentss havee to bbe loooked aat. Thh

39、e loccal acccountting pprinciiples, but much more IAS/IIFRS aand U.S. GAAAP leead too showwing tthe “rright” tax bburdenn, takking ttemporrary ddifferrencess betwween aaccounnting and ttaxatiion ass welll intoo accoount, folloowed bby nummerouss infoormatiion onn taxees. Thhis trranspaarencyy of tth

40、e acccountts furrther leadss to aanalyssts chhallennging the ttax buurden and mmanageement needss for explaanatioons off the tax lline. Thus, infoormatiion thhat waas onlly a ddecadee ago due tto thee tax secreecy inn a loot of counttries confiidentiial coonstanntly bbecomees morre andd moree publli

41、c.Take thhe conncept of deeferreed taxx asseets annd taxx liabbilitiies. PPostpooned oor up-frontt tax paymeents ddue too diffferencces inn calcculatiing taaxablee proffits aand loosses whichh reveerse oover tthe tiime looose iimporttance. Thesse timming ddifferrencess leadd onlyy to ttemporrary tta

42、x saavingss/tax burdeen andd as aa conssequennce, aa defeerred tax lliabillity/ttax assset hhas too be aaccounnted ffor. TThe acccountts shoow in thesee casees thee overrall ttax buurden that wouldd arisse bassed onn the accouunts oof thee prevvailinng yeaar (i.e. cuurrentt taxees andd defeerred tax

43、ess).An exammple ffor tiiming diffeerencees whiich leead too settting uup a ttax assset aare wrrite ddowns that are nnot att oncee acknnowleddged ffor taax purrposess, butt reveerse oover ttime. As cuurrentt taxees aree highher thhan thhe taxx burdden thhat maatchess withh the accouunts, a defferred

44、d tax assett can be seet up. A deeferreed taxx liabbilityy may resullt froom resservess whicch aree tax deducctiblee accoordingg to nnationnal laaw, buut connstituute eqquity accorrding to IFFRS/U.S. GAAAP.Accordiing too inteernatiional accouuntingg prinnciplees, a tax aasset on loosses carriied foo

45、rwardd has as weell too be sset upp: losss carrry foorwardds leaad to potenntial tax ssavinggs in the ffuturee, as the uunderllying net bbusineess exxpensees aree therreforee not lost, but can bbe useed agaainst futurre, noot yett reallized profiits. HHoweveer, thhe commpany has tto exaamine the rre

46、alizzationn posssibiliity off thiss tax assett, andd in ccase tthat rrealizzationn seemms nott/not fullyy reallisticc, makke a ttotal/partiial vaaluatiion alllowannce.Let me give two eexamplles foor perrmanennt diffferennces aand thheir iimpactt on tthe efffectiive taax ratte: Taax exeempt ddivideen

47、ds oor cappital gainss leadd to aa tax rate beloww the actuaal taxx ratee in tthe prrevailling ccountrry. Thhe efffectivve taxx ratee takees thiis intto acccount.In casee of aadditiional profiit disstribuutionss or ccapitaal gaiins thhat weere noot plaanned the eeffecttive ttax raate iss evenn lowee

48、r thaan thee expeected effecctive tax rrate. Interrest eexpensses, wwhich in soome coountriies arre nott tax-deducctiblee if iin dirrect cconnecction with tax eexemptt incoome leead too a hiigher effecctive tax rrate tthan tthe noormal locall tax rate. If rrefinaancingg is sshifteed to anothher looc

49、atioon (e.g. deebt puush doown), and tthe innteresst burrden iis in this counttry deeductiible, then the ooveralll taxx burdden deecreasses.Of courrse onne hass alwaays too be aaware of soo-callled quuasi-ppermannent ddifferrencess, i.ee. diffferennces tthat nnever reverrse duue to the pprevaiiling

50、indivviduall situuationn of tthe coompanyy: As an exxamplee, thee miniimum ttaxatiion inn Germmany mmight lead to a situaation, espeeciallly witth reggard tto vollatilee busiinessees, thhat looss caarry fforwarrds caan be used up inn theoory, bbut noot in practtice, as prrofitss havee alwaays too be

51、 iintegrrated to 400% in taxabble inncome regarrdlesss of aa stilll exiistingg losss carrry forrward.3.2 Dissclosuures aand Nootes tto thee AccoountsIn the interrnatioonal aaccounnts, aan expplanattion oof thee mainn drivvers oof thee effeectivee tax rate (comppared to thhe exppectedd tax rate) is d

52、done iin a sso-callled “rreconcciliattion”. As ffar ass thiss infoormatiion haas to be diisclossed (ee.g. FForm 220-F), thiss trannspareency lleads to a deepeer anaalysiss and underrstandding oof thee tax situaation, as wwell aas of businness ddecisiions: e.g. in caase off highh tax-exemppt inccome

53、tthe annalystts migght asssume that extraaordinnary (not ooperatting) incomme wass earnned (ee.g. aadditiional profiit disstribuution or addditioonal ccapitaal gaiins).In casee tax assetts on loss carryy forwwards are wwritteen dowwn, thhis miight bbe a cconseqquencee of ttoo agggresssive mmulti yea

54、r planss in tthe paast. HHoweveer, itt mighht alsso be the cconseqquencee of ttax raate chhangess (e.gg. thee tax reforrm 20008 in Germaany wiill leead too a wrrite ddown oon taxx asseets onn lossses annd othher teemporaary diiffereences of arround 25%), as tthe taax ratte diffferenntial is 100% (40

55、0% to 30%). Thuss the hit hhas raather to bee takeen as a onee timee effeect.A writee backk on ddeferrred taax asssets oon lossses mmight have diffeerent reasoons ass welll: It mightt be aa conssequennce off overrachieeving on pllans aand taargetss and thereefore higheer taxxable operaating incomme.

56、 Itt mighht be the cconseqquencee of sstructtures to usse up lossees, e.g. buuying in off incoome orr sellling oof losss carrry foorwardds to exterrnal ppartiees.And of coursse, efffectss of ttax auudits mightt be oopen tto thee anallysts in caase off mateerialiity ass welll. In this conteext, tthe

57、quuestioon migght arrise, whethher orr not tax pplanniing waas tooo aggrressivve. Thhe settting up off tax contiingenccy resservess mighht alsso havve quiite diiffereent reeasonss: It can bbe an indiccator for ttoo agggresssive ttax pllanninng, buut as well of unncertaain taax intterpreetatioon or c

58、hangge in jurissdictiion.Source: Martiina Baaumgarrtel,22008 “Taxaation, Accoountinng andd Trannspareency: The IInteraactionn of FFinanccial aand Taax Acccountiing” . HYPERLINK /content/978-3-540-77275-0/ o Link to the Book of this Chapter Tax aand Coorporaate Goovernaance, vol.33, no.2, march,ppp.

59、93-1000.譯文：稅務(wù)，會(huì)計(jì)和透透明度：財(cái)務(wù)務(wù)和稅務(wù)會(huì)計(jì)計(jì)的相互作用用 1、簡(jiǎn)介在過去幾年中，經(jīng)經(jīng)濟(jì)領(lǐng)域不斷斷發(fā)展。因此，企業(yè)業(yè)，尤其是在在市場(chǎng)上，大大牌公司們?nèi)?zhēng)取取利用國(guó)際資資本市場(chǎng)，并并在不同司法管管轄區(qū)獲得證證券交易所上上市交易的資資格。作為一項(xiàng)先決條條件，現(xiàn)行的的國(guó)際會(huì)計(jì)準(zhǔn)準(zhǔn)則，無論是是國(guó)際財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)報(bào)告準(zhǔn)則或美美國(guó)通用會(huì)計(jì)計(jì)準(zhǔn)則，企業(yè)業(yè)都必須遵守守。在另一邊，因因?yàn)槎愂樟⒎ǚㄈ匀皇恰氨颈镜亍焙筒唤y(tǒng)統(tǒng)一，公司總總是找得到最最好的稅收環(huán)環(huán)境進(jìn)行其業(yè)業(yè)務(wù)。下面這篇文文章試圖在短短期內(nèi)總結(jié)，特特別是在國(guó)際際帳戶稅務(wù)影影響透明度的的國(guó)際稅收和和會(huì)計(jì)的影響響。作為一個(gè)個(gè)更具透明度度的結(jié)果，重重

60、要的是必須須盡可能的清楚楚明確地規(guī)定稅收規(guī)規(guī)劃對(duì)現(xiàn)有的的稅率，以及及影響邊界，這這不僅是符合合法律要求，也符合道德標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，各公司無法承受失去它的良好聲譽(yù)所造成的損失。2、稅收與會(huì)計(jì)計(jì) - 兩個(gè)個(gè)不同的世界界？2.1現(xiàn)狀由于稅收仍然是是本地的，跨國(guó)公司司為了配合尋找找做生意的業(yè)業(yè)務(wù)活動(dòng)和構(gòu)構(gòu)建合適的商商業(yè)機(jī)會(huì)和稅稅收環(huán)境的需需要。不用說，首先先以利潤(rùn)分配配國(guó)家和國(guó)際際規(guī)則不變作作為前提條件件加以考慮，但但無論如何，稅稅務(wù)籌劃是至至關(guān)重要的。它不是本地地的稅率，實(shí)實(shí)際稅負(fù)到底底是多少才是是真正重要的的，同時(shí)需要要考慮到的還有有總的稅基。還存在著如如何構(gòu)建靈活活的業(yè)務(wù)活動(dòng)動(dòng)的問題，如關(guān)關(guān)于設(shè)立全組組結(jié)