1、Chapter 7Groups and TeamworkCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Chapter 7Copyright 2011 PearLearning ObjectivesDefine groups and distinguish between formal and informal groups.Discuss group development.Explain how group size and member diversity influence what occurs in groups.Copyright 2011 Pearson C

2、anada Inc.Learning ObjectivesDefine grouLearning Objectives (continued)Review how norms, roles, and status affect social interaction.Discuss the causes and consequences of group cohesiveness.Explain the dynamics of social loafing.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Learning Objectives (continuedLearni

3、ng Objectives (continued)Discuss how to design and support self-managed teams.Explain the logic behind cross-functional teams and describe how they can operate effectively.Understand virtual teams and what makes them effective.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Learning Objectives (continuedWhat Is a

4、 Group?A group consists of two or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal.Interaction is the most basic aspect of a group.Interdependence means that group members rely to some degree on each other to accomplish goals.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.What Is a Group?A group

5、 consisWhat Is a Group? (continued)Why is group membership important?Groups exert influence on us.Groups provide a context in which we are able to exert influence on others.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.What Is a Group? (continued)WhFormal Work GroupsFormal work groups are groups that are establ

6、ished by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals.The most common formal group consists of a manager and the employees who report to the manager.Other types of formal work groups:Task forcesCommitteesCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Formal Work GroupsFormal work Informal

7、GroupsInformal groups are groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members.They are seldom sanctioned by the organization.Informal groups can either help or hurt an organization, depending on their norms for behaviour.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Inform

8、al GroupsInformal groupsGroup DevelopmentGroups are complex social devices.They require a fair amount of negotiation and trial-and-error before individual members begin to function as a true group.How do groups develop?Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group DevelopmentGroups are coTypical Stages of

9、 Group DevelopmentGroups develop through a series of stages over time.Each stage presents the members with a series of challenges they must master to achieve the next stage.The stages model is a good tool for monitoring and troubleshooting how groups are developing.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.

10、Typical Stages of Group DeveloTypical Stages of Group Development (continued)Not all groups go through these stages.The process applies mainly to new groups that have never met before.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Typical Stages of Group DeveloStages of Group DevelopmentCopyright 2011 Pearson Ca

11、nada Inc.Stages of Group DevelopmentCopFormingGroup members try to orient themselves by “testing the waters.”The situation is often ambiguous, and members are aware of their dependency on each other.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.FormingGroup members try to orStormingConflict often emerges at thi

12、s stage.Confrontation and criticism occur as members determine whether they will go along with the way the group is developing.Sorting out roles and responsibilities is often at issue.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.StormingConflict often emergesNormingMembers resolve the issues that provoked the

13、storming, and they develop social consensus.Compromise is often necessary.Norms are agreed on and the group becomes more cohesive.Information and opinions flow freely.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.NormingMembers resolve the issPerformingThe group devotes its energies toward task accomplishment.A

14、chievement, creativity, and mutual assistance are prominent themes at this stage.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.PerformingThe group devotes itAdjourningRites and rituals that affirm the groups previous successful development are common.Members often exhibit emotional support for each other.Copyri

15、ght 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.AdjourningRites and rituals thPunctuated Equilibrium ModelA model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions.Equilibrium means stability.Stretches of group stability punctuated by a c

16、ritical first meeting, a midpoint change in group activity, and a rush to task completion.Does the sequence sound familiar to you?Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Punctuated Equilibrium ModelA Phase 1Begins with the first meeting and continues until the midpoint in the groups existence.The first me

17、eting is critical in setting the agenda for what will happen in the remainder of the phase.The group makes little visible progress toward the goal.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Phase 1Begins with the first mMidpoint TransitionOccurs at almost exactly the halfway point in time toward the groups d

18、eadline.The transition marks a change in the groups approach.How the group manages it is critical for the group to show progress.This transition crystallizes the groups activities for Phase 2.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Midpoint TransitionOccurs at aPhase 2Decisions and approaches adopted at t

19、he midpoint get played out in Phase 2.It concludes with a final meeting that reveals a burst of activity and a concern for how outsiders will evaluate the product.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Phase 2Decisions and approacheThe Punctuated Equilibrium Model of Group Development for Two GroupsCopyr

20、ight 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.The Punctuated Equilibrium ModPunctuated Equilibrium Model (continued)Advice for managing teams:Prepare carefully for the first meeting.As long as people are working, do not look for radical progress during Phase 1.Manage the midpoint transition carefully.Be sure that ad

21、equate resources are available to actually execute the Phase 2 plan.Resist deadline changes.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Punctuated Equilibrium Model (Group Structure and Its ConsequencesGroup structure refers to the characteristics of the stable social organization of a group - the way a group

22、 is “put together.”The most basic structural characteristics along which groups vary are size and member diversity.Other structural characteristics are group norms, roles, status, and cohesiveness.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group Structure and Its ConseqGroup SizeThe smallest possible group c

23、onsists of two people, such as a manager and a particular employee.In practice, most work groups, including task forces and committees, usually have between 3 and 20 members.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group SizeThe smallest possiblGroup Size and SatisfactionMembers of larger groups consistent

24、ly report less satisfaction with group membership than those in smaller groups.Chance to work on and develop friendships decrease as size increases.Larger groups might prompt conflict and dissension.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group Size and SatisfactionMemGroup Size and Satisfaction (continue

25、d)Many people are inhibited about participating in larger groups.In large groups, individual members identify less easily with the success and accomplishments of the group.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group Size and Satisfaction (cGroup Size and PerformanceDo large groups perform tasks better t

26、han small groups?The relationship between group size and performance depends on the task the group needs to accomplish and on how we define good performance.Types of tasks:Additive tasksDisjunctive tasksConjunctive tasksCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group Size and PerformanceDo lAdditive TasksTa

27、sks in which group performance is dependent on the sum of the performance of individual group members.For additive tasks, the potential performance of the group increases with group size.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Additive TasksTasks in which gDisjunctive TasksTasks in which group performance

28、 is dependent on the performance of the best group member.The potential performance of groups doing disjunctive tasks increases with group size.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Disjunctive TasksTasks in whicProcess LossesGroup performance difficulties stemming from the problems of motivating and co

29、ordinating larger groups.As groups performing tasks get bigger, they tend to suffer from process losses.Problems of communication and decision making increase with size. Actual performance = Potential performance Process lossesCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Process LossesGroup performancGroup Siz

30、e, Productivity, and Process LossesCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group Size, Productivity, and Group Size, Productivity, and Process LossesCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group Size, Productivity, and Group Size, Productivity, and Process LossesCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group Size, Pro

31、ductivity, and Process Losses (continued)Potential performance and process losses increase with group size for additive and disjunctive tasks.Actual performance increases with size up to a point and then falls off.The average performance of group members decreases as size gets bigger.Copyright 2011

32、Pearson Canada Inc.Process Losses (continued)PoteProcess Losses (continued)Thus, up to a point, larger groups might perform better as groups, but their individual members tend to be less efficient.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Process Losses (continued)ThusConjunctive TasksTasks in which group p

33、erformance is limited by the performance of the poorest group member.Both the potential and actual performance of conjunctive tasks would decrease as group size increases.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Conjunctive TasksTasks in whicGroup Size and Performance: SummaryFor additive and disjunctive t

34、asks, larger groups might perform better up to a point but at increasing costs to the efficiency of individual members. Performance on purely conjunctive tasks should decrease as group size increases.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group Size and Performance: SuDiversity of Group MembershipDiverse

35、 groups have a more difficult time communicating effectively and becoming cohesive.Diverse groups might take longer to do their forming, storming, and norming.Once they do develop, more and less diverse groups are equally cohesive and productive.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Diversity of Group M

36、embershipDDiversity of Group Membership (continued)Diverse groups sometimes perform better when the task requires cognitive, creativity-demanding tasks, and problem-solving.In general, any negative effects of “surface diversity” in age, gender, or race seem to wear off over time.“Deep diversity” in

37、attitudes toward work or how to accomplish a goal can badly damage cohesiveness.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Diversity of Group Membership Group NormsSocial norms are collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of each other.They are codes of conduct that s

38、pecify the standards against which we evaluate the appropriateness of behaviour.Most normative influence is unconscious; we are only aware of it in special circumstances.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group NormsSocial norms are coNorm DevelopmentWhy do norms develop?Norms provide regularity and

39、predictability to behaviour.What do norms develop about?Norms develop about behaviours that are at least marginally important to their supporters.How do norms develop?Shared attitudes among members of a group form the basis for norms.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Norm DevelopmentWhy do norms dNo

40、rm Development (continued)Why do individuals comply with norms?The norm corresponds to privately held attitudes.They often save time and prevent social confusion.Groups have a range of rewards and punishments available to induce conformity to norms.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Norm Development

41、(continued)WhSome Typical NormsSome types of norms that exist in most organizations and affect the behaviour of members include:Dress normsReward allocation norms (equity, equality, reciprocity, social responsibility)Performance norms Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Some Typical NormsSome types oR

42、olesPositions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them.Roles represent “packages” of norms that apply to particular group members.There are two basic kinds of roles in organizations:Assigned rolesEmergent rolesCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.RolesPositions in a group that

43、Role AmbiguityRole ambiguity exists when the goals of ones job or the methods of performing it are unclear. There are a variety of elements that can lead to role ambiguity:Organizational factorsThe role senderThe focal personCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Role AmbiguityRole ambiguity eA Model of

44、the Role Assumption ProcessCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.A Model of the Role AssumptionRole Ambiguity (continued)What are the practical consequences of role ambiguity?The most frequent outcomes are job stress, dissatisfaction, reduced organizational commitment, lower performance, and intentions

45、to quit.Managers can reduce role ambiguity by providing clear performance expectations and performance feedback.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Role Ambiguity (continued)WhatRole ConflictRole conflict exists when an individual is faced with incompatible role expectations.There are four types of ro

46、le conflict:Intrasender role conflictIntersender role conflictInterrole conflictPerson-role conflictCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Role ConflictRole conflict exiIntrasender Role ConflictA single role sender provides incompatible role expectations to a role occupant.This type of role conflict is e

47、specially likely to also provoke ambiguity.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Intrasender Role ConflictA sinIntersender Role ConflictTwo or more role senders provide a role occupant with incompatible expectations.Employees who straddle the boundary between the organization and its clients or customer

48、s are especially likely to encounter this form of conflict.It can also stem from within the organization.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Intersender Role ConflictTwo oInterrole ConflictSeveral roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible expectations.Competing demands for ones time are a fre

49、quent symptom of interrole conflict.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Interrole ConflictSeveral rolePerson-Role ConflictRole demands call for behaviour that is incompatible with the personality or skills of a role occupant.Many examples of “whistle-blowing” are signals of person-role conflict.The or

50、ganization has demanded some role behaviour that the occupant considers unethical.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Person-Role ConflictRole demanRole Conflict: ConsequencesThe most consistent consequences of role conflict are job dissatisfaction, stress reactions, lowered organizational commitment,

51、 and turnover intentions.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Role Conflict: ConsequencesTheRole Conflict (continued)Managers can help prevent employee role conflict by:Avoiding self-contradictory messagesConferring with other role sendersBeing sensitive to multiple role demandsFitting the right person

52、 to the right roleCopyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Role Conflict (continued)ManagStatusStatus in the rank, social position, or prestige accorded to group members.It represents the groups evaluation of a member.What is evaluated depends on the status system in question.All organizations have both fo

53、rmal and informal status systems.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.StatusStatus in the rank, sociFormal Status SystemsRepresents managements attempt to publicly identify those people who have higher status than others.Status symbols are tangible indicators of status (e.g., titles, pay packages, work

54、 schedules).Formal organization status is based on seniority in ones group and ones assigned role in the organization ones job.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Formal Status SystemsRepresentFormal Status Systems (continued)Why do organizations go to all the trouble to differentiate status?They serv

55、e as powerful magnets to induce members to aspire to higher organizational positions.Reinforces the authority hierarchy in work groups and in the organization as a whole.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Formal Status Systems (continuInformal Status SystemsSuch systems are not well advertised, and t

56、hey might lack the conspicuous symbols and systematic support that people usually accord the formal system.They can operate just as effectively as formal status systems.Informal status is linked to job performance as well as other factors such as gender or race.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Info

57、rmal Status SystemsSuch syConsequences of Status DifferencesMost people like to communicate with others at their own status or higher, rather than with people who are below them.Tendency for communication to move up the status hierarchy.If status differences are large, people can be inhibited from c

58、ommunicating upward.Higher-status members do more talking and have more influence.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Consequences of Status DiffereReducing Status BarriersBecause they inhibit the free flow of communication, many organizations downplay status differentiation by doing away with status

59、symbols.The goal is to foster a culture of teamwork and cooperation across the ranks.Email seems to have leveled status barriers.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Reducing Status BarriersBecausGroup CohesivenessGroup cohesiveness is a critical property of groups.It refers to the degree to which a gr

60、oup is especially attractive to its members.Members want to stay in the group and they describe the group in favourable terms.Cohesiveness is a relative, rather than absolute, property of groups.Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.Group CohesivenessGroup cohesiFactors Influencing CohesivenessWhat make