精品文檔精品文檔精品文檔精品文檔Chapter4Negotiation:StrategyandOverviewInthischapter,wediscusswhatnegotiatorsshoulddobeforeopeningnegotiations.Effectivestrategyandplanningarethemostcriticalprecursorsforachievingnegotiationobjectives.Witheffectiveplanningandtargetsetting,mostnegotiatorscanachievetheirobjectives;withoutthem,resultsoccurmorebychancethanbynegotiatoreffort.Regrettably,systematicplanningisnotsomethingthatmostnegotiatorsdowillingly.Althoughtimeconstraintsandworkpressuresmakeitdifficulttofindthetimetoplanadequately,formanyplanningissimplyboringandtedious,easilyputoffinfavorofgettingintotheactionquickly.Itisclear,however,thatdevotinginsufficienttimetoplanningisoneweaknessthatmaycausenegotiatorstofail.Thediscussionofstrategyandplanningbeginsbyexploringthebroadprocessofstrategydevelopment,startingwithdefiningthenegotiator’sgoalsandobjectivesthenmovestodevelopingastrategytoaddresstheissuesandachieveone’sgoals.Finally,weaddressthetypicalstagesandphasesofanevolvingnegotiationandhowdifferentissuesandgoalswillaffecttheplanningprocess.LearningObjectivesGoals–Thefocusthatdrivesanegotiationstrategy.Strategy–Theoverallplantoachieveone’sgoals.Gettingreadytoimplementthestrategy:Theplanningprocess.GoalsFocusThatDrivesaNegotiationStrategyDirecteffectsofgoalsonchoiceofstrategyTherearefourimportantaspectstounderstandabouthowgoalsaffectnegotiations:Wishesarenotgoals,especiallyinnegotiation.Goalsareoftenlinkedtotheotherparty’sgoals.Thereareboundariesorlimitstowhatgoalscanbe.Effectivegoalsmustbeconcrete,specificandmeasurable.Iftheyarenot,thenwillbehardto:CommunicatetotheotherpartywhatwewantUnderstandwhattheotherpartywantsDeterminewhetheranofferonthetablesatisfiesourgoals.Goalscanbetangibleorprocedural.Thecriteriausedtodeterminegoalsdependonyourspecificobjectivesandprioritiesamongmultipleobjectives.IndirecteffectsofgoalsonchoiceofstrategyShort-termthinkingaffectsourchoiceofstrategy;indevelopingandframinggoals,wemayignorethepresentorfuturerelationshipwiththeotherpartyinaconcernforachievingasubstantiveoutcomeonly.Negotiationgoalsthatarecomplexordifficulttodefinemayrequireasubstantialchangeintheotherparty’sattitude.Inmostcases,progresswillbemadeincrementally,andmaydependonestablishingarelationshipwiththeotherStrategy–TheOverallPlantoAchieveOne’sGoalsStrategyversusTacticsAmajordifferencebetweenstrategyandtacticsisthatofscale,perspectiveimmediacy.Tacticsareshort-term,adaptivemovesdesignedtoenactorpursuebroadstrategies,whichinturnprovidestability,continuity,anddirectionfortacticalbehaviors.Tacticsaresubordinatetostrategy:theyarestructured,directed,anddrivenstrategicconsiderations.UnilateralversusbilateralapproachestostrategyAunilateralchoiceismadewithouttheactiveinvolvementoftheotherparty.Unilaterallypursuedstrategiescanbewhollyone-sidedandintentionallyignorantanyinformationabouttheothernegotiator.Unilateralstrategiesshouldevolveintoonesthatfullyconsidertheimpactoftheother’sstrategyonone’sown.Thedualconcernsmodelasavehiclefordescribingnegotiationstrategies.Thisproposesthatindividualshavetwolevelsofrelatedconcerns:aconcernfortheirownoutcomes,andalevelofconcernfortheother’soutcomes.AlternativesituationalstrategiesThereareatleastfourdifferenttypesofstrategieswhenassessingtherelativeimportanceandpriorityofthenegotiator’ssubstantiveoutcomeversustherelationaloutcome:competitive,collaboration,accommodation,andavoidanceThenonengagementstrategy:AvoidanceTherearemanyreasonswhynegotiatorsmaychoosenottonegotiate:Ifoneisabletomeetone’sneedswithoutnegotiatingatall,itmaymakesensetouseanavoidancestrategyItsimplymaynotbeworththetimeandefforttonegotiate(althoughtheresometimesreasonstonegotiateinsuchsituationsThedecisiontonegotiateiscloselyrelatedtothedesirabilityofavailabalternatietheoutcomesthatcanbeachievedifnegotiationsdon’tworkActive-engagementstrategies:Competition,collaboration,andaccommodationCompetitionisdistributivewin-losebargaining.Collaborationisintegrativeorwin-winnegotiation.Accommodationisasmuchawin-losestrategyascompetition,althoughithasadecidedlydifferentimageitinvolvesanimbalanceofoutcomes,butintheoppositedirection. (“Ilose,youwin”asopposedto“Iwin,youlose.”)Therearedrawbackstothesestrategiesifappliedblindly,thoughtlesslyinflexibly:Distributivestrategiestendtopatterns,whichmayresultinadistortionwellastheirvalues,needsandpositions.

asIfanegotiatorpursuesanintegrativestrategywithoutregardtotheothertheothermaymanipulateandexploitthecollaboratorandtakeadvantageoffaithandgoodwillbeingdemonstrated.Accommodativestrategiesmaygenerateapatternofconstantlygivinginkeeptheotherhappyortoavoidafight.UnderstandingtheFlowofNegotiations:StagesandPhasesPhasemodelsofnegotiation:InitiationProblemsolvingResolutionGreenhalgh(2001)suggeststhattherearesevenkeystepstoanidealnegotiationprdecidingwhatisimportant,defininggoals,thinkingaheadhowtowortogetherwiththeotherparty.Relationshiptoknowtheotherparty,understandinghowyouandtheotheraresimilaranddifferent,andbuildingcommitmenttowardachievingmutuallybeneficialsetofoutcomes.Informationgatheiearningwhatyouneedtoknowabouttheissues,abouttheotherpartyandtheirneeds,aboutthefeasibilityofpossiblesettlements,whatmighthappenifyoufailtoreachagreementwiththeotherside.Informationthisstage,negotiatorsassemblethecasetheywanttomakefotheirpreferredoutcomesandsettlement,onethatwillmaximizethenegotiator’sneeds.theprocessofmakingmovesfromone’sinitial,idealpositiontotheacoutcome.Closingthedatheobjectivehereistobuildcommitmenttotheagreementinthepreviousphase.Implementingtheagreeeeterminingwhoneedstodowhatoncehandsshakenandthedocumentssigned.GettingReadytoImplementtheStrategy:ThePlanningProcessDefiningtheissuesUsuallybeginswithananalysisofwhatistobediscussedinthenegotiation.Thenumberofissuesinanegotiation,alongwiththerelationshipbetweenthenegotiatorandtheotherparty,areoftentheprimarydeterminantofwhetheroneadistributiveorintegrativestrategy.Inanynegotiation,acompletelistoftheissuesatstakeisbestderivedfromfollowingsources:Ananalysisofallthepossibleissuesthatneedtobedecided.Previousexperienceinsimilarnegotiations.Researchconductedtogatherinformation.Consultationwithexpertsinthatindustry.AssemblingtheissuesanddefiningthebargainingmixThecombinationoflistsfromeachsideinanegotiationdeterminesthebargainingmix.Therearetwostepsanegotiatorcanusetoprioritizetheissuesonanagenda:Determinewhichissuesaremostimportantandwhicharelessimportant.Determinewhethertheissuesarelinkedtogetherorareseparate.DefiningInterestsInterestsmaybe:Substantive,thatis,directlyrelatedtothefocalissuesundernegotiation.Process-based,thatis,relatedtohowthenegotiatorsbehaveastheynegotiate.Relationship-based,thatis,tiedtothecurrentordesiredfuturebetweentheparties.Interestsmayalsobebasedonintangiblesofnegotiation.KnowinglimitsandalternativesGoodpreparationrequiresthatyouestablishtwoclearpoints:Resistancepoint–theplacewhereyoudecidethatyoushouldabsolutelystopnegotiationratherthancontinue.Alternatives–otheragreementsnegotiatorscouldachieveandstillmeettheirneeds.Alternativesdefinewhetherthecurrentoutcomeisbetterthanpossibility.SettingtargetsandopeningsTwokeypointsshouldbedefinedinthisstep:ThespecifictargetponhereonerealisticallyexpectstoachieveasettlementTheaskingprice,representingthebestdealonecanhopetoachieve.Targetsettingrequirespositivethinkingaboutone’sownobjectives.Targetsettingoftenrequiresconsideringhowtopackageseveralissuesandobjectives.Targetsettingrequiresanunderstandingoftrade-offsandthrowaways.AssessingconstituentsandthesocialcontextofanegotiationWhenpeoplenegotiateinaprofessionalcontext,theremaybemorethantwoparties.Theremaybemorethantwonegotiatorsatthetable.Multiplepartiesoftentotheformationofcoalitions.Negotiatorsalsohaveconstituentswhowillevaluateandcritiquethem.Negotiationoccursinacontextofrules–asocialsystemoflaws,commonbusinesspractices,culturalnorms,andpoliticalcross-pressures.“Fieldanalysis”canbeusedtoassessallthekeypartiesinanegotiation.Whois,orshouldbe,ontheteamonmysideofthefield?Whoisontheothersideofthefield?Whoisonthesidelinesandcanaffecttheplayofthegame?Whoarenegotiationequivalentsofowners,managersandstrategists?Whoisinthestands?Whoiswatchingthegame,isinterestedinit,butcanindirectlyaffectwhathappens?Whatisgoingoninthebroaderenvironmentinwhichthenegotiationplace?Whatiscommonandacceptablepracticeintheethicalsysteminwhichthedealbeingdone?Whatiscommonandacceptablepracticegiventhecultureinwhichnegotiationisconducted?AnalyzingtheotherpartyLearningtheother’sissues,preferences,priorities,interests,alternativesandconstraintsisalmostasimportantasdeterminingone’sown.Severalkeypiecesofbackgroundinformationwillbeofgreatimportance,including:Theotherparty’sresources,issues,andbargainingmix–investigate:Otherparty’sbusinesshistoryorpreviousnegotiations.Financialdata.Inventories.Visitorspeakwiththeotherparty’sfriendsandpeers.Questionpastbusinesspartners.Theotherparty’sinterestsandneeds.Conductapreliminaryinterviewincludingabroaddiscussionofwhatotherpartywouldliketoachieveintheupcomingnegotiations.Anticipatingtheotherparty’sinterests.Askingotherswhoknoworhavenegotiatedwiththeotherparty.Readinghowtheotherpartyportrayshim/herselfinthemedia.Theotherparty’slimits(resistancepoint)andalternative(s).Understandingtheotherparty’slimitsandalternativesisimportantbecauseitwillprovideinformationastohowfaryoucan“push”them.Theotherparty’stargetsandopenings.Systematicallygatherinformationdirectlyfromtheotherparty.Constituents,socialstructure,andauthoritytomakeanagreement.Themostdirectimpactofthebroadersocialcontextisontheothernegotiator’sabilitytomakebindingagreements.Thenegotiatorneedstoknowhowtheotherparty’sorganizationmakesdecisionstosupportorratifyanagreement.Reputationandnegotiationstyle.Anegotiator’stypicalstyle(integrativeordistributiveapproach)isanimportantdeterminantofhowtoapproachtheotherpartyintheOne’simpressionoftheotherparty’sreputationmaybebasedonseveralfactors:Howtheotherparty’spredecessorshavenegotiatedwithyouinthepast.Howtheotherpartyhasnegotiatedwithyouinthepast,eitherintheorindifferentcontexts.Howtheotherpartyhasnegotiatedwithothersinthepast.Likelystrategyandtactics.Informationcollectedaboutissues,objectives,reputation,style,andauthoritymayindicateagreatdealaboutwhatstrategytheotherpartyintendstopursue.PresentingissuestotheotherpartyWhatfactssupportmypointofview?WhommayIconsultortalkwithtohelpmeelaborateorclarifythefacts?Havetheseissuesbeennegotiatedbeforebyothersundersimilarcircumstances?Whatistheotherparty’spointofviewlikelytobe?HowcanIdevelopandpresentthefactssotheyaremostconvincing?Whatprotocolneedstobefollowedinthisnegotiation?Thea