FromphoneticstophonologySpeechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Forexample,pat[ph?t],

spat[sp?t]Velarization:clearlanddarkl // []/_____V []/V_____Thinkabouttellandtelling!Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant.Like,lovePlease,clear,feelHelpWow!YouhavestudiedPhonology!!Teachingfocus:1.

Phonologyandphonetics2.

Phone,phoneme,andallophone3.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair4.

Somerulesinphonology5.

Supra-segmentalfeatures1.Phonologyandphonetics

Phoneticsandphonologybothstudythesameaspectoflanguage---speechsounds,buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Definition

Phonetics---abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesthemethodsfortheclassification,descriptionandtranscriptionofspeechsounds.Phonetics---general:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossessandhowtheycanbeclassified.Definition

Phonology:thestudyofthesystemandpatternsofthespeechsoundsandhowtheyworkinthesystemoflanguage.Phonology---language-specific;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Summary:Phonetics---general;classification,descriptionandtranscriptionofspeechsounds.Phonology---language-specific;thepatternofspeechsounds.2.Phone/Phoneme/Allophone2.1.Phone(音素）:aphoneticunitPhonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage,thatis,individualsoundsastheyoccurinspeech.#Conventionally,phonesareplacedwithsquarebrackets[].Eg.leaf,feel,top,stop[l].[i:],[f],[t],[p]aresounds,whicharecalled“phones”.Phone(音素）:aphoneticunitindividualsoundsastheyoccurinspeech.placedwithsquarebrackets[].2.2.Phoneme（音位）---Phonemeisthesmallestsoundunitthatcandistinguishmeaning.Phonemeisthebasicunitofphonologicalstudy.eg./p/,/b/in“Pan/ban”.#Conventionally,phonemesareplacedinslashes//.Phonemeisaunitofdistinctivevalue.However,itisanabstractunit,i.e.itisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.

Inactuallyutteredspeech,aphonemeisrealizedphoneticallyasacertainphone.Phoneme（音位）thebasicunitofphonologicalstudythesmallestsoundunitthatcandistinguishmeaning.placedinslashes//.anabstractunit,notasoundacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures

2.3.Allophones(音位變體）Aphonemecanberealizedphoneticallybyoneormorethanonephone.Thedifferentphoneswhichrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme/p/inEnglishcanberealizedas[ph]and,[p],whichareallophonesofthephoneme/p/.

(Allophonesarematerializations,instantiationsandactualizationsofaphonemeinaparticularlanguagethatneveraffectthemeaning.)Superman&ClarkKent

Theyarefromasingleperson,eventhoughtheylookandactdifferently.Theyusuallyturnupindifferentcontexts,orinotherwords,theyneverappearinthesamecontext.Iftheyweresounds,theywouldbeallophonesofthesamephoneme.Then,whichisthephoneme?Supermanonlyappearsinthecontextofemergencyofbeingahero;ClarkKentistheordinarymanineverydaylife.Andinourmind,thereisamanwhocombinesthetwo.Thoughthe“mental”manonlyexitsinourmentalworld,ithastwoidentitiesindifferentcontext.Soaphonemeisthemaninourbrains.Spiderman&Batman3.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.Phonemiccontrast

(音位對立）Phonemiccontrast----differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bit]and[pit].Soundsinphonemiccontrastshouldbeassignedtodifferentphonemes.

Complementarydistribution

（互補分布）Complementarydistribution---allophonesof

thesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].

Superman&ClarkKent

Batman&BruceWayneTheyarefromasingleperson,eventhoughtheylookandactdifferently.Theyusuallyturnupindifferentcontexts,orinotherwords,theyneverappearinthesamecontext.Itmeanstheyareincomplementarycontribution.Iftheyweresounds,theywouldbeallophonesofthesamephoneme.ButSuperman&Batmanarephysicallydifferentpersons,eachwithhisowndistinctiveidentity.Soiftheyweresounds,theystandfordifferentphonemes.Theycanappearatthesametimeinthesamecontextwhileplayingdifferentroles.Thatistosaytheyareincontrastivedistribution.

/x/phonemiccontrast/y/

[x1][x2][y1][y2]SupermanClarkBatmanBruce

complementarydistributionPhone/phoneme/allophone

/x/phonemiccontrast/y/

[x1][x2][y1][y2]

complementarydistributionPhone/phoneme/allophoneFish!Dish!....Dine?Fine?Minimalpair

（最小對立體）Minimalpair---whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.

Minimalpairreferstotwoexpressions(wordsormorphemes)ofalanguagewithdifferentmeaningsthataredistinguishedbyonlyonephoneme,e.g.{pig,big};{tip,dip};{ship,sheep}

MinimalSets:{pat,bat,mat};{said,says,set,sell};{beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat}Somerulesinphonology

Sequentialrules(序列規(guī)則）Assimilationrule(同化規(guī)則）Deletionrule（省略規(guī)則）SequentialrulesSequentialrules---therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,thatis,whichphonemecanbeginaword,endawordandfolloweachother.e.g.inEnglish,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.SequentialrulesIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:a)

thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)

thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)

thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.AssimilationruleAssimilationrule---assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.e.g.im+possible;in+toleranttheprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetalveolar[in]inconceivablevelar[in]

AssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna唱啊chang跳啊tiaowa……EnglishFricativeDevoicingAssimilationDeletionruleDeletionrule---ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.5.Suprasegmentalfeatures

(超切分特征）Suprasegmentalfeatures---thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonationSuprasegmentalfeaturesformanimportantpartofofthesoundpatternsoflanguage.Theyaddcolortoourspeechandevenrealizespecialmeanings.Phonologystudiesnotonlythephonemesofalanguage,butalsoSuprasegmentalfeaturesofalanguage,suchashowsoundsarecombinedintolargerunits,andwhat/howthosefeaturesfunctioninactualspeaking.StressStressistheemphasis(shownbymoreforceful,louder,andhigher-pitchedvoice)giventosomesyllables(usuallynomorethanoneineachword).Therearethreestressdegrees:primarystress,secondarystressandunstresswhichisunmarked.Therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.

WordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:

verb:im’port;in’crease;re’bel;re’cord;…

noun:’import;’increase;‘rebel;’record…Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:

compound:‘blackbird;‘greenhouse;‘hotdog;‘WhiteHouse…

nounphrase:black‘bird;green‘house;hot‘dog;white‘house…SentencestressSentencestress---therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Contentwordsdeservemoreattentioninthesentence,sotheyarestressedandbecomeprominentinactualspeaking.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Thelastcontentwordinthesentenceoftenexpressthemostimportantinformationandbecomesthesentencestress.But,forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.

IsawMary.IsawMary.（ThepersonIsawisMary,notElizabeth.）IsawMary.（Ididn’thearherbutsawher.）IsawMary.（Itisme,notanybodyelse,whosawher.）Sheboughtmetwopencils.Sheboughtmetwopencils.（twopencils,nottwopens）Sheboughtmetwopencils.（twopencils,notoneorthree）

Sheboughtmetwopencils.（Itisshe,notyou,heorthey,whoboughtmethem.）Ididitintheclassroom.Ididitintheclassroom.（intheclassroom,notinthebedroom)Ididitintheclassroom.（intheclassroom,notoutsideofit）

Ididitintheclassroom.（ItisI,notanybodyelse,whodidit.）

ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Atonelanguage:alanguageinwhichthemeaningoftheworddependsonthetoneusedwhenpronouncingit.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.

Function---Affectthemeaningoftheword.

(level):ma媽