CohesionAsHallidayandHasanexplainedintheprefacetoCohesioninEnglish(1976),“Cohesiverelationsarerelationsbetweentwoormoreelementsinatextthatindependentofthestructure;forexamplebetweenapersonalpronounandanantecedentname,suchasJohn…h(huán)e.Asemanticrelationofthiskindmaybeeitherwithinasentenceorbetweensentences;withtheconsequencethat,whenitcrossesasentenceboundary,ithastheeffectofmakingthetwosentencescoherewithoneanother.”Introduction

2Relationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext,andthatdefineitasatext.(HallidayandHasan)Therelationshipbetweenitemsinatext,especiallythosesurface-structurefeatureswhichlinkdifferentelementsofatext.（苗興偉）Theconnectionbetweensuccessivesentencesintexts,conversations，etc.,insofarasitcanbedescribedintermsofspecificsyntacticunits.（OxfordConciseDictionaryofLinguistics）Definition3

Reference(指稱）Ellipsis（省略）

Grammatical

devicesSubstitution（替代)Conjunction(連接）

Lexical

devicesReiteration（重述）Collocation（搭配）

Cohesion

4Reference——thesemanticrelationinwhichawordorwordsareusedtoenabletheaddresseetoidentifysomeoneorsomething.Accordingtowhetherthereferentisretrievablewithinthetextoroutinthecontextofsituation,referencefallsintothefollowingcategories:endophora（內(nèi)指）&exophora（外指）.

Reference5Wecanillustratereferencewiththefollowingdiagram:

Reference

[situational][textual]

exophora

endophora

[toprecedingtext][tofollowingtext]

anaphora

cataphora

(前指）（后指）

Reference6Endophoricreference:whichreferstoanitemwhosereferentcanberetrievablewithinthetext.Twotypesofrelationshiparerecognized:anaphoricrelationslookbackwardsfortheirinterpretation,andcataphoricrelationslookforwards.Forexample,

Severalpeopleapproached.Theyseemedangry.Listentothis:John’sgettingmarried.Endophoricreference7Exophoricreference:whichreferstoanitemwhosereferentisretrievableinthecontextofsituation.Exophoricrelationisameansoflinking‘outwards’tosomepersonorobjectintheenvironment.Forexample:

(Amothersaidtoherchild)“Comehereandpickitup.”Inthisutterance,theinterpretationof“here”and“it”isdependentonthesituationinwhichtheutteranceisproduced.Exophoricreference8

PersonalReference（人稱指稱關(guān)系）DemonstrativeReference（指示指稱關(guān)系）

ComparativeReference（比較指稱關(guān)系）ThreeTypesofReference9Itisareferencebymeansoffunctionintoaspeechsituationthroughthecategoryofthepersonintheformofpersonalpronouns.

I-‘theonespeaking’

you-‘theone(s)spokento’

he,she,it,they-‘theother(s)inthesituation’ThefirstandsecondpersonsIand

younaturallyretainthisdeicticsense;theirmeaningisdefinedintheactofspeaking.PersonalReference10Thethirdpersonformshe,she,it,theycanbeusedexophorically;butmoreoftenthannot,inalllanguagesasweknowthem,suchitemsareanaphoric:thatistheypointnot‘outwards’totheenvironmentbut‘backwards’totheprecedingtext.PersonalReference11Forexample,Thedoggotinthegarbage.Hegotsickfromeatingthestalebread.PersonalReferencePersonals Headdeictic

ClassdeterminativepossessiveSingularMasculinehe/himhishisFeminineshe/herhersherNeuterit[its]itsPluralthey/themtheirstheir12FunctionThesecondtypeofreferenceitemisthedemonstrative,this/that,these/those,here/there.Demonstrativesmayalsobeexophoricoranaphoric;inorigintheywereprobablythesameasthird-personforms,buttheyretainastrongerdeicticflavourthanthepersonals,andhaveevolvedcertaindistinctanaphoricfunctionoftheirown.

DemonstrativeReference13Thebasicsenseof‘this’and‘that’isoneofproximity;thisreferstosomethingasbeing‘near’,thatreferstosomethingasbeing‘notnear’.The‘that’termtendstobemoreinclusive,thoughthetwoaremoreevenlybalancedinEnglishthantheirequivalentsinsomeotherlanguages.Proximityistypicallyfromthepointofviewofthespeaker,sothismeans‘nearme’.Forexample,Hemerelylaughedandsaidthatshewasimaginingthings.Thistypicalmaleactionresultedinarow.DemonstrativeReference14Thewordtheisstillreallyademonstrative,althoughademonstrativeofaratherparticularkind.Considerthefollowingexamples:ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.Algymetabear.Thebearwasbulgy.ThebulgewasAlgy.

DemonstrativeReference15Ina)weknowwhich‘house’isbeingreferredto,becausewearetold-itistheonebuiltbyJack;andnoticethattheinformationcomesaftertheoccurrenceofthethe.Inb)weknowwhichbear-theonethatAlgymet;andweknowwhichbulge-theonedisplayedbythebear;butinthiscasetheinformationhadalreadybeengivenbeforethetheoccurred.ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.Algymetabear.Thebearwasbulgy.ThebulgewasAlgy.DemonstrativeReference16Thelocativedemonstratives

hereandtherearealsousedasreferenceitems;heremaybecataphoric,oranaphoricand‘near‘;thereisanaphoricbutnot‘near’.Thetemporaldemonstratives

nowandthenalsofunctionascohesiveitems,butconjunctivelyratherthanreferentially.Forexample,Helatermadetheunusualswitchtothearmy.Therehehadabrilliantcareer.

DemonstrativeReference17Thefollowingtableshowsusthedemonstrativereferenceitems.Demonstratives

ClassHeadDeicticAdjunctSpecificNear

this/thesethis/thesehere(now)Remotethat/thosethat/thosethere(then)Non-specificitthe18Function19Thereisthethirdtypeofreferencethatcontributestothetextualcohesion,parativereference.Whereaspersonalsanddemonstratives,whenusedanaphorically,setuparelationofco-reference,wherebythesameentityisreferredtooveragain,comparativessetuparelationofcontrast.Incomparativereference,thereferenceitemstillsignals‘youknowwhich’.ComparativeReferenceAnyexpressionsuchasthesame,another,similar,different,asbig,bigger,lessbig,andrelatedadverbssuchaslikewise,differently,equally,presumessomestandardofreferenceintheprecedingtext.Likepersonalsanddemonstratives,comparativereferenceitemscanalsobeusedcataphorically,withinthenominalgroup;forexamplemuchmoresmoothlythanalivelyhorse,wherethereferencepointforthe‘more’liesinwhatfollows.ComparativeReference2021ComparativesClassDeictic/NumerativeEpithetAdjunct/SubmodifierGeneralidentifysame,equal,identical&c.identically,(just)as&c.similaritysimilar,additional&c.suchso,likewise,similarly&c.differenceother,different&c.otherwise,else,differently&c.particularmore,fewer,less,further&c.;so,as&c.+numeralbigger&c.so,as,more,less&c.+adjectivebetter&c.;so,as,more,less&c.+adverbFunction22ComparativeReferenceForexample,Tomgetstendollarsaweekforpocketmoney.Bobreceivesasimilaramount.Findmearipermongo!TwomenwerekilledbylethalinjectioninTexasthisyear,eventhoughtherewere17whentheycommittedtheiroffencesandanother65juvenilesareondeathrow…Suchexecutionsarerareworld-wide,”thereportsays.Substitution-inordertoavoidrepeatingthesamewordseveraltimesinoneparagraph,itisreplaced,mostoftenbyone,doorso.Ellipsisisthesetofresourcesbywhichfullrepetitionaclauseorclauseelementcanbeavoided,andbywhichitcanbesignaledtoreadersthattheyshouldrepeatthewordingfromapreviousclause(or,insomecases,fromtheirownknowledge).EllipsisandSubstitution23Ellipsisandsubstitutionarevariantsofthesametypeofcohesiverelation.Substitutionisthereplacementofoneitembyanother,andellipsisistheomissionofanitem.Ellipsiscanbeinterpretedasthatformofsubstitutioninwhichtheitemisreplacedbynothing.TherearethreemaincontextsforellipsisandsubstitutioninEnglish.Theseare(1)theclause,(2)theverbalgroupand(3)thenominalgroup.Weconsidereachoftheseinturn.24EllipsisandSubstitutionEllipsisintheclauseisrelatedtomood.Specially,itisrelatedtothequestion-answerprocessindialogue;andthisdeterminesthattherearetwokinds(a)yes/noellipsis,and(b)WH-ellipsis.Eachofthesealsoallowsforsubstitution,thoughnotinallcontexts.Wewillconsiderthemintheorderbelow.(a)yes/noellipsis(b)WH-ellipsis(1)Theclause25(i)thewholeclause(ii)partoftheclause(i)thewholeclause(ii)partoftheclauseInayes/noquestion-answersequencetheanswermayinvolveellipsisofthewholeclause.e.g.Canyourow?---Yes.[Icanrow]Isthatall?---No.[thatisnotall]Thefirstclauseinsuchapairisnotnecessarilyaquestion;itmayhaveanyspeechfunction.e.g.Haveanotherbiscuit?No,thankyou.[Iwon’thaveanotherbiscuit](a)yes/noellipsis:(i)thewholeclause26Asanalternativetotheellipsisofthewholeclause,theremaybeellipsis

ofjustonepartofit,theResidue.Forexample:①Mustanamemeansomething?--Ofcourseitmust.[meansomething]②Holdyourtongue!--Iwon’tyes/noellipsis:(ii)partoftheclause27InaWH-sequencetheentireclauseisusuallyomittedexceptfortheWH-elementitself,ortheitemthatistheresponsetotheWH-element:①Ithinkyououghttotellmewhoyouare,first.--Why?[oughtItotellyouwhoIam]②Whatdidtheydraw?--Treacle.[theydrawtreacle]③They’reatitagain.--Who?[whoareatitagain?]--Thelionandtheunicorn,ofcourse.[areatitagain](b)WH-ellipsis:(i)thewholeclause28SometimesinaWH-clause,oritsresponse,theMoodelementisleftinandonlytheResidueisellipsed.Forexample,withWH-Subject:Theyareatitagain.–Whoare?[atitagain]Whocanunitthisknot?–Ican.[unitthatknot]SimilarlyiftheWH-elementispartoftheResidue:Don’tlooknow.–Whyshouldn’tI?[looknow](b)WH-ellipsis:(ii)partoftheclause29Correspondinginmeaningtoyesandnoarethesubstitutes

soandnot.Incertaincontextsthesesubstituteformsareused:(i)followingif—ifso,ifnot;(ii)asareportedclause—hesaidso,hesaidnot;(iii)inthecontextofmodality—perhapsso,perhapsnot.e.g.IfIlikebeingthatperson,I’llcomeup;ifnot[ifIdon’tlikebeingthatperson],I’llstaydownheretillI’msomebodyelse.Tomhascreatedthebestwebdirectory.Itoldyouso[Tomhascreatedthebestwebdirectory]alongtimeago.ClausalSubstitution30SinceanyclausalellipsisinwhichtheMoodelementispresentbuttheResidueomittedwillinvolveellipsis

withintheverbalgroup,wedon’trepeatithere.Substitution

intheverbalgroupisbymeansofdo,whichcansubstituteforanyverbprovideditisactivenotpassive,exceptbeor,insomecontexts,have.Theverbdowillappearintheappropriatenon-finiteform(do,doing,done).Examples:(2)Theverbalgroup31Examples:A:Haveyoubeenworking?B:Yes,Ihave[beenworking].Havethechildrengonetosleep?--Ithinktheymusthavedone[gonetosleep].Aswehaveseen,thisdotypicallysubstitutesforthewholeoftheResidue(or,whatamountstothesamething,whentheverbissubstitutedbydo,therestoftheResidueisellipsed.)(2)Theverbalgroup32Thereisanominalsubstitute

one,pluralones,whichfunctionsasHead;itcansubstituteforanycountnoun(thatis,anynounthatisselectingfornumber,singularorplural).Forexample,Thishereoughttohavebeenaredrose-tree,andweputawhiteone[awhiterose-tree]inbymistake.

A:Howmanyappleswouldyouhave?B:I’dhavetwo[apples].(3)Thenominalgroup33AccordingtoHallidayandHasan,conjunctiveelementsarecohensivenotinthemselvesbutindirectly,byvirtueoftheirspecificmeanings.Theyexpresscertainmeaningswhichpresupposethepresenceofothercomponentsinthediscourse.TherehavebeenseveralclassificationsoftheseConjunctions:additive(增補型）,adversative（轉(zhuǎn)折型）,causal（原因型）andtemporal（時間型）.Conjunction34Forexample,Forthewholedayheclimbedupthesteepmountainside,almostwithoutstopping.Andinallthistimehemetnoone.(additive)Yethewashardlyawareofbeingtired.(adversative)Sobynighttimethevalleywasfarbelowhim.(causal)Then,asduskfell,hesatdowntorest.(temporal)Conjunction35Apartfromasmallsetofconjunctions(and,or,nor.etc),conjunctiveelementsalsoincludeconjunctiveadjuncts(nevertheless,therefore,ontheotherhand,anyway,asamatteroffact,etc.).Thedeviceswhichcreateconjunctionconstitutecohesivebondsbetweensectionsoftext.Conjunction36Conjunctionadditionpositive:and,also,moreover,inadditionnegative:noradversativebut,yet,ontheotherhand,howevervariationreplacive:onthecontrary,insteadsubtractive:apartfromthat,exceptforthatalternative:alternatively37Conjunction(i)positivethen,inthatcase,inthatevent,underthecircumstances(ii)negativeotherwise,ifnot(iii)concessiveyet,still,though,despitethis,however,evenso,allthesame,nevertheless38Temporalconjunction

(i)simplefollowing:then,next,afterwards[includingcorrelativesfirst…then]simultaneous:justthen,atthesametimepreceding:beforethat,hitherto,previouslyconclusive:intheend,finally39Temporalconjunction

(ii)compleximmediate:atonce,thereupon,straightawayinterrupted:soon,afterawhilerepetitive:nexttime,onanotheroccasionspecific:nextday,anhourlater,thatmorningdurative:meanwhile,allthattimeterminal:untilthen,uptothatpointpunctiliar:atthismoment40Lexicalcohesioniscohesionresultingfromtheselectiveuseofvocabulary.Speakersandwriterscancreatecohesionindiscoursethroughthechoiceoflexicalitemsthatarerelatedinsomewaytothosethathavegonebefore.Twotypesoflexicalcohesionaredifferentiated,namely,reiteration（重述）andcollocation（搭配）.LexicalCohesion41Reiterationadoptsvariousforms,particularlyrepetition（反復(fù)）,synonymy（同義詞）,hyponymy（