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HowtoTarget
LPGSubsidies
inIndia:
Step2.Evaluatingpolicy
optionsinJharkhand
GSIREPORT
ShrutiSharmaTomMoerenhoutMicha?lAklinKavyaBajaj
?2021InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment|
IISD.org
/gsi May2021
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
?2021InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopmentPublishedbytheInternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment
Thispublicationislicensedundera
CreativeCommonsAttribution-
NonCommercial-ShareAlike4.0InternationalLicense
.
InternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment
TheInternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopment(IISD)isanaward-winningindependentthinktankworkingtoacceleratesolutionsforastableclimate,sustainableresourcemanagement,andfaireconomies.Ourworkinspiresbetterdecisionsandsparksmeaningfulactiontohelppeopleandtheplanetthrive.Weshinealightonwhatcanbeachievedwhengovernments,businesses,non-profits,andcommunitiescometogether.IISD’sstaffofmorethan120people,plusover150associatesandconsultants,comefromacrosstheglobeandfrommanydisciplines.Ourworkaffectslivesinnearly100countries.
IISDisaregisteredcharitableorganizationinCanadaandhas501(c)(3)statusintheUnitedStates.IISDreceivescoreoperatingsupportfromtheProvinceofManitobaandprojectfundingfromgovernmentsinsideandoutsideCanada,UnitedNationsagencies,foundations,theprivatesector,andindividuals.
HeadOffice
111LombardAvenue,
Suite325
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CanadaR3B0T4
Tel:+1(204)958-7700
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Twitter:@IISD_news
GlobalSubsidiesInitiative
TheIISDGlobalSubsidiesInitiative(GSI)supportsinternationalprocesses,nationalgovernmentsandcivilsocietyorganizationstoalignsubsidieswithsustainabledevelopment.GSIdoesthisbypromotingtransparencyonthenatureandsizeofsubsidies;evaluatingtheeconomic,socialandenvironmentalimpactsofsubsidies;and,wherenecessary,advisingonhowinefficientandwastefulsubsidiescanbestbereformed.GSIisheadquarteredinGeneva,Switzerland,andworkswithpartnerslocatedaroundtheworld.ItsprincipalfundershaveincludedthegovernmentsofDenmark,Finland,NewZealand,Norway,Sweden,SwitzerlandandtheUnitedKingdom,aswellastheKRFoundation.
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia:
Step2.EvaluatingpolicyoptionsinJharkhandMay2021
WrittenbyShrutiSharma,TomMoerenhout,Micha?lAklin,andKavyaBajaj
GlobalSubsidiesInitiative
InternationalEnvironmentHouse2,
7–9chemindeBalexert1219ChatelaineGeneva,SwitzerlandCanadaR3B0T4
Tel:+1(204)958-7700
Website:
/gsi
Twitter:
@globalsubsidies
IISD.org/gsi ii
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
Acknowledgements
Theauthorswouldliketothankanumberofindividualswhocontributedtothisproject,including:onprojectdesign,ChristopherBeatonfromtheInternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopmentandJohannesUrpelainenfromtheInitiativeforSustainableEnergyPolicy(ISEP),JohnsHopkinsUniversity;ondatacollection,VagishaNandanfromISEPandBhartenduTrivedi,NitinRathour,GauravPravin,andtherestoftheteamatMorselIndia.
Theauthorsofthisupdatewouldliketothankthefollowingindividualsandinstitutionsforthevaluablecommentsandrecommendationsthattheyprovidedaspeerreviewers:
AjayPillarisettiandCarlosF.Gould,InitiativeforSustainableEnergyPolicy(ISEP)
MadhuraJoshi,NaturalResourcesDefenceCouncil(NRDC)
SunilMani,CouncilforEnergy,EnvironmentandWater(CEEW)
ChandrashekharSingh,IntegratedResearchandActionforDevelopment(IRADe)
RobBailis,StockholmEnvironmentInstitute(SEI)
WewouldalsoliketothankthegovernmentsofSweden,Norway,andDenmarkfortheirgeneroussupportofthiswork.
Theopinionsexpressedandtheargumentsemployedinthispaperdonotnecessarilyreflectthoseofthepeerreviewersandfunders,norshouldtheybeattributedtothem.
IISD.org/gsi iii
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
ExecutiveSummary
WhyExploreLiquefiedPetroleumGasSubsidyTargeting?
Infiscalyear(FY)2019,India’ssubsidiesforliquefiedpetroleumgas(LPG),acleanercookingfuel,amountedtoINR54,518crore(USD7.74billion).LPGsubsidiesareexpensiveandcreatefiscalpressureatatimewhenitsrevenuesarefallingbecauseofCOVID-19.Throughconnectionsupport,consumptionsupport,andlowertaxation,theyhaveplayedanimportantroleinthemassiveuptakeofLPG.Theaimofthispolicyhasbeentoshifthouseholdsawayfromtraditionalbiomassfuelsthatreleasedangerousamountsofindoorairpollution,causingrespiratorydisease,particularlyamongwomenandchildren.
InMay2020,thedramaticdeclineinworldoilpricesresultedinalargedecreaseinLPGcylinderprices,effectivelyremovinganyLPGsubsidypercylinder.Sincethen,bothoilpricesandLPGcylinderpriceshaveclimbedupwardsagain,withpricesreachingpre-COVIDlevels.Asofthetimeofwriting,therehasbeennoclarityonwhethertheLPGsubsidywillbereintroduced,butitisanticipatedthatdemandfortheirreturncanonlygrow.TheCOVID-19crisishasseverelyaffectedincomes,furtherstressingtheneedtoprovidesupportforaffordablecleancookingforthemostvulnerable.Thisreportdiscussesthepotentialfor“subsidytargeting”:suggestingthatanyreintroductionofLPGsubsidiesshouldfocusbenefitsonthosemostinneedwhilereducingthemforbetter-offconsumers.
FigureES1.Distributionoftotalsubsidies(in%)byruralandurbanexpenditurequintiles
Changeinshare(%)
35
32
30
30
24
25
19
20
21
20
17
15
15
11
12
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Expenditurequintile
Rural
Urban
Note:Thedistributionofbenefitsaboveisillustratedacross“quintiles”orderedbyrelativeexpenditurelevels.Quintile1ismadeupofthepooresthouseholdsandquintile5,thewealthiesthouseholds.Asimilarregressivedistributionisobservedwhenquintilesaredefinedusingawealthindex(ascoreforhouseholdsbasedonnon-electricassetsandsocio-economicstatus).Seethefullreportforresultsbrokendownbydifferentmethodsforidentifyingpoorerandricherhouseholds.
IISD.org/gsi iv
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
OurApproach
Thisreportseekstopromoteadiscussionontargetingusingrobustsurveydatafromover900householdsinJharkhandonLPGconsumption,householdexpenditure,andassets.Weassess:(1)thedistributionofexistingLPGsubsidiesand(2)theperformanceofdifferenttargetingstrategies.
DistributionofExistingLPGSubsidies
LPGsubsidiesareregulatedbythenationalgovernment,withthesubsidyvaryingwithmonthlyrevisionsinLPGcylinderprices.WefoundthatthedistributionofLPGsubsidiesisregressiveinJharkhand,namely:
Amongruralhouseholds,thetoptwoquintiles—therichest40%ofhouseholds—receive53%ofsubsidybenefits,andthebottomtwoquintilesreceive28%.
Amongurbanhouseholds,thetoptwoquintilesreceive54%ofsubsidybenefits,andthebottomtwoquintilesreceive27%.
HowCouldLPGSubsidyTargetingBeImproved?
Weevaluatedtwostrategiestoimprovesubsidytargeting,resultinginthefollowingchangesinsubsidydistribution.
TableES1.SummaryofapproachestoimproveLPGsubsidytargeting
Option
Description
Results
Volumetric
Thistargetingoptionreducesthe
Thisdidnotimpactthedistribution
targeting
annualquotaofasubsidizedcylinder
ofLPGsubsidies,anditcontinuedto
from12to9foreachLPGconsumer.
beregressive:better-offhouseholds
receivedahighershareofsubsidy
benefits,whilepoorerhouseholds
receivedasmallershare.Butthis
optionreducedsubsidyexpenditure,as
itreducedsubsidytransfersby14%in
ruralareasandby19%inurbanareas.
Differential
Thistargetingoptionallocates
Thisincreasedtheaveragesubsidy
subsidyfor
ahigherper-cylinderPratyaksh
receivedbyallgroupsbutalsomade
Pradhan
HanstantritLabhYojana(PAHAL)
nosignificantchangetosubsidy
Mantri
subsidyonlyforbeneficiariesof
incidence.Inruralareas,therichest
Ujjwala
PMUY,suchthatthefirstsetofthree
40%nowreceived52%ofbenefits
Yojana
cylindersconsumedannuallyisata
comparedto53%earlier.Thepoorest
(PMUY)
90%subsidizedrate,thesecondset
40%sawsubsidybenefitsfallto27%
consumers
isata60%subsidizedrate,andthe
from28%earlier.Similarresultswere
thirdsetisata30%subsidizedrate,
observedamongurbanhouseholds.It
withconsumerspayingmarketrates
shouldbenoted,however,thatthese
aftertheirninethrefill.Non-PMUY
estimatesassumednochangein
usersreceiveaflat30%subsidyon
consumptionpatternsasaresultof
ninecylindersannuallyandmarket
highersubsidies.
ratesaftertheirninethrefill.
IISD.org/gsi
v
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
Recommendations
Thisreporthastestedandanalyzedseveraloptionsbutdidnotidentifya“magicbullet”foreasilyimprovingLPGsubsidydistributionamongpoorhouseholds.ThemainbottleneckinimprovingsubsidydistributionappearstobethelowconsumptionofsubsidizedLPGcylindersamongpoorhouseholdsandthehighconsumptionamongbetter-offhouseholds.Subsidiesthereforeaccumulatetobetter-offhouseholdswithhigherconsumptionofsubsidizedLPGcylinders.Untilreasonsforlowconsumptionbypoorhouseholdsarebetterunderstoodandaddressed,andaneffectivewayisfoundtorestrictbenefitsforbetter-offconsumers,policy-makerscanconsiderapplyingvolumetrictargetingtocontinuetolimitoverallsubsidyexpenditure.
SincetheCOVID-19crisisbegan,manyhouseholdsinIndiahaveseenadramaticfallinincomesandareanticipatedtofallbackintopoverty.CoupledwithJharkhand’sexistinghighlevelsofpoverty,thisstronglysuggeststhatthechoiceofanynewtargetingmechanismwhenLPGsubsidiesarereintroducedmustbeundertakenwithcaretonotincreasethehardshipsforanypoorhouseholds.
ThisreportmakesthefollowingrecommendationstoimprovesubsidytargetingwhenthegovernmentreintroducesanLPGsubsidy.
Maptheknowledgegap:ThisstudydemonstratesthatLPGsubsidiesarehighlyregressiveinJharkhand.AdedicatedeffortisneededtoidentifytheequityofLPGsubsidiesacrossIndiainordertobetterconcentratepolicyattentiononthisproblem.
Testsmarterindicators:Povertyiscontextual,andthisreporttestedinterventionsforJharkhand,astatewithhighpoverty.Manyoftheapproachestestedheremayyielddifferentresultsforotherstates.Furtherworkcouldalsobedonetocontinuethisstudy’stentativeexplorationofindicators,likemotorcycleownership,thatcouldbeusedtorestrictsubsidiestohigher-incomehouseholds.Otheroptionsincludegeographicaltargeting(basedonaphysicalareawithahigherpercentageofvulnerablehouseholds)orsocialcategoricaltargeting(wherehouseholdsqualifyiftheyarebeneficiariesofexistingsocialwelfareschemes).LeveragingbothnationalandJharkhand-levelwomen-centricschemescouldalsoexploredasawaytoimplementpossiblecategoricaltargeting.
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HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
TableofContents
1.0WhyLPGSubsidiesandTheirTargetingMatter 1
2.0BackgroundofLPGSubsidiesinIndia 3
2.1LPGSubsidyPoliciesinIndia 3
2.2COVID-19’sImpactonLPGSubsidies 5
2.3GenderandWelfareSchemesinJharkhand 6
3.0Methodology 7
3.1SurveyDesign 7
3.2ApproachforEstimatingLPGSubsidyBenefits 8
3.3ApproachesforCategorizingHouseholds 9
3.3.1RationCardApproach 9
3.3.2ExpenditureApproach 10
3.3.3WealthIndexApproach 11
3.4ComparingtheApproaches 12
4.0WhoGetsLPGSubsidiesToday,andIstheDistributionofBenefitsFair? 15
4.1SubsidyIncidenceWithaRationCardApproach 15
4.2ViaanExpenditureQuintileApproach 18
4.3ViaaWealthQuintileApproach 20
4.4LPGAccessandAffordability 22
5.0HowWouldDifferentTargetingOptionsChangeSubsidyDistribution? 25
5.1VolumetricTargeting:Reducingannualvolumetriclimitsfrom12to9 25
5.2DifferentialSubsidyforPMUY:Increasingper-cylindersubsidyforPMUYconsumers 29
5.3ImplicationsofResults 34
6.0ConclusionsandRecommendations 36
6.1Conclusions 36
6.2Recommendations 37
References 39
AnnexA.EstimatingMonthlyLPGSubsidy 43
AnnexB.WealthIndex 44
AnnexC.SupportingFigures 46
IISD.org/gsi vii
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
ListofFigures
FigureES1.Distributionoftotalsubsidies(in%)byruralandurbanexpenditurequintiles v
Figure1.Surveydesign 8
Figure2.Surveyedhouseholdsdisaggregatedbytypeofrationcard 10
Figure3.Rationcardownershipbyexpenditurequintiles 13
Figure4.Rationcardownershipbyruralwealthquintiles 14
Figure5.Rationcardownershipbyurbanwealthquintiles 14
Figure6.Rationcardownershipinruralareas 15
Figure7.Rationcardownershipinurbanareas 16
Figure8.Annualconsumptionofcylindersbyrationcardholdersinruralareas 16
Figure9.Annualconsumptionofcylindersbyrationcardholdersinurbanareas 16
Figure10.MeanLPGsubsidybyrationcardinruralareas 17
Figure11.MeanLPGsubsidybyrationcardinurbanareas 17
Figure12.Share(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbyrationcardholdersinruralareas 18
Figure13.Share(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbyrationcardholdersinurbanareas 18
Figure14.Annualconsumptionofcylindersbyexpenditurequintileinruralareas 19
Figure16.MeanLPGsubsidybyexpenditurequintileinruralareas 19
Figure15.Annualconsumptionofcylindersbyexpenditurequintileinurbanareas 19
Figure17.MeanLPGsubsidybyexpenditurequintileinurbanareas 19
Figure18.Share(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbyexpenditurequintileinruralareas 20
Figure19.Share(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbyexpenditurequintileinurbanareas 20
Figure20.Annualconsumptionofcylindersbywealthquintileinruralareas 20
Figure21.Annualconsumptionofcylindersbywealthquintileinurbanareas 20
Figure22.MeanLPGsubsidybywealthquintileinruralareas 21
Figure23.MeanLPGsubsidybywealthquintileinurbanareas 21
Figure24.Share(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbywealthquintileinruralareas 22
Figure25.Share(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbywealthquintileinurbanareas 22
Figure26.LPGexpenditureasshare(%)ofhouseholdexpenditureinruralareas,by
expenditurequintile 23
Figure27.LPGexpenditureasshare(%)ofhouseholdexpenditureinurbanareas,by
expenditurequintile 23
Figure28.Share(%)ofhouseholdsusingprimarycookingfuelinruralareas,by
expenditurequintile 24
Figure29.Share(%)ofhouseholdsusingprimarycookingfuelinurbanareas,by
expenditurequintile 24
Figure30.Changeinshare(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbyexpenditurequintilein
ruralareasfromvolumetrictargeting 26
IISD.org/gsi viii
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
Figure31.Changeinshare(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbyexpenditurequintileinurban
areasfromvolumetrictargeting 27
Figure32.ChangesinmeanLPGsubsidy(INR)receivedbyexpenditurequintilesin
ruralareasfromvolumetrictargeting 27
Figure33.ChangesinmeanLPGsubsidy(INR)receivedbyexpenditurequintilesin
urbanareasfromvolumetrictargeting 28
Figure34.%breakdownofannualLPGcylinderconsumptioninexpenditurequintiles
forruralareas 28
Figure35.%breakdownofannualLPGcylinderconsumptioninexpenditurequintilesfor
urbanareas 29
Figure36.Changeinshare(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbyexpenditurequintilein
ruralareasfromdifferentialsubsidy 30
Figure37.Changeinshare(%)ofLPGsubsidiesreceivedbyexpenditurequintilein
urbanareasfromdifferentialsubsidy 31
Figure38.ChangesinmeanLPGsubsidy(INR)receivedbyexpenditurequintilesin
ruralareasfromdifferentialsubsidy 31
Figure39.ChangesinmeanLPGsubsidy(INR)receivedbyexpenditurequintilesin
urbanareasfromdifferentialsubsidy 32
Figure40.%breakdownofannualLPGcylinderconsumptioninexpenditurequintilesfor
PMUYconsumersinruralareas 32
Figure41.%breakdownofannualLPGcylinderconsumptioninexpenditurequintilesfor
PMUYconsumersinurbanareas 33
Figure42.%breakdownofhouseholdsbytypeofLPGconnectioninvariousrural
expenditurequintiles 33
Figure43.%breakdownofhouseholdsbytypeofLPGconnectioninvariousurban
expenditurequintiles 34
FigureC1.%breakdownofannualLPGcylinderconsumptioninexpenditurequintiles
forruralareas 46
FigureC2.%breakdownofannualLPGcylinderconsumptioninexpenditurequintilesfor
urbanareas 46
IISD.org/gsi ix
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
ListofTables
TableES1.SummaryofapproachestoimproveLPGsubsidytargeting vi
Table1.India’sLPGsubsidies(INRmillion) 4
Table2.HouseholdswithLPGconnectionsinthesurvey 8
Table3.Rangeofhouseholdmonthlyexpenditureranges,byquintiles(INR) 11
Table4.Inter-quintileranges:Householdmonthlyexpenditurerangesforthewealth
indexindifferentruralandurbanquintiles(INR) 12
Table5.Summaryofmainfindings 36
Table6.SummaryoftargetingoptionstoimproveLPGsubsidytargetinginJharkhand 37
TableA1.MonthlymarketpricesandsubsidyforLPGcylindersfromMay2019toMarch2020.43
TableB1.Listofvariablesusedintheconstructionofthewealthindex 44
ListofBoxes
Box1.Chi-squaretestingandstatisticalsignificance 13
Box2.Furtherpossibilitiestoexplore:Indicatorstofilteroutbetter-offconsumers 35
IISD.org/gsi x
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
AcronymsandAbbreviations
AAY
APL
BPL
DBT
DBTL
FY
LPG
MoPNG
MGNREGA
NREG
NSAP
OMC
PAHAL
PDS
PH
PIB
PMUY
PMGKY
PMJDY
PMKisan
PMMVY
SHG
SECC
AnantodayaAnnaYojana
AbovePovertyLine
BelowPovertyLine
DirectBenefitTransfer
DirectBenefitTransferforLPG
fiscalyear
liquefiedpetroleumga
MinistryofPetroleumandNaturalGas
MahatmaGandhiNationalRuralEmploymentGuaranteeAct
nationalruralemploymentguarantee
NationalSocialAssistanceProgramme
oilmarketingcompany
PratyakshHanstantritLabhYojana
PublicDistributionSystem
PriorityHousehold
PressInformationBureau
PradhanMantriUjjwalaYojana
PradhanMantriGaribKalyanYojana
PradhanMantriJan-DhanYojana
PradhanMantriKisanSammanNidhi
PradhanMantriMatruVandanaYojana
self-helpgroup
Socio-EconomicCasteCensus
IISD.org/gsi xi
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
1.0WhyLPGSubsidiesandTheirTargetingMatter
Energysubsidiescanplayanimportantroleintacklingthe“affordability”barriertoenergyaccess.TheIndianCentralGovernmentsubsidizesliquefiedpetroleumgas(LPG),inpart,tohelphouseholdstransitionawayfromtraditionalsolidfuels,whichareresponsibleforhighlevelsofhouseholdairpollutionthatprimarilyaffectswomenandyoungchildren.
ThesepolicieshavebeenextremelysuccessfulinincreasingLPGconsumption.Inrecentyears,however,theircosthasgrownconsiderably,whichmaymakethemhardtosustain.Infiscalyear(FY)2019,LPGsubsidiesaddeduptoINR54,518crore(USD7.74billion),28%ofallnationalenergysubsidies(Gargetal.,2020).1ThisisalmostthreetimesthevalueinFY2017(Gargetal.,2020).In2020,thesubsidieswillhavetemporarilyfallentoverylowlevelsduetotheworldoilpricecrashamidtheCOVID-19pandemicandthetemporaryhaltingofLPGsubsidiessinceMay2020.Butthisisanexceptionalchange,andcostsmayclimbagainastheworldeconomyandoilpricesrecoverandifLPGsubsidiesarereintroduced.
Despitethefiscalburden,thereisgrowingdemandforLPGsubsidies.Accordingtoa2018surveyofruralhouseholdsinIndia’ssixmostenergy-deprivedstates,over60%ofrespondentswantedhigherLPGsubsidiesoverothercleancookinginterventions,upfrom47%in2015(Jainetal.,2018).Similarly,70%ofhouseholdsalreadyusingLPGastheirprimaryfuelthoughtitwastooexpensive,comparedto57%in2015(Jainetal.,2018).InFY2016,activeLPGdomesticconsumersstoodat148.6million.AsofFY2020,thishadgrown87%to278.7million.
Subsidy“targeting”isoneoptionthatcanmaintainLPGsubsidiesforpoorconsumerswhilereducingoverallprogramcosts:thatis,focusingsubsidybenefitsonanarrowersubsetofbeneficiaries.Buttherearebigknowledgegapsstandinginthewayofitseffectiveimplementation.Thereisnoup-to-datepubliclyavailablenationaldistributiondataontheeffectivenessandefficiencyofIndia’sLPGsubsidies.
ThisreportaimstofillthegapfortimelyandcomprehensiveanalysesonsubsidydistributionandeffectivenesstosupportanypolicyredesignwhenLPGsubsidiesarereintroduced.Basedonahouseholdsurveyconductedin2019inJharkhand,weanalyzethedistributionofLPGsubsidiesamonghouseholdsofdifferentwealthlevels.Wethenanalyzeseveraloptionsforimprovingsubsidytargeting.ThesemeasureshavebeenshortlistedfromalargersetoftargetinginterventionsidentifiedinIISD’spreviouswork,includingSharma,Jainetal.(2019).
ThisreportisthefourthinaseriesthatexamineshowenergysubsidiescanbebettertargetedinIndia,including:
HowtoTargetElectricityandLPGSubsidiesinIndia:Step1.IdentifyingPolicyOptions
1Exchangeratesinthisreportforrespectivefinancialyearsaretakenfrom
/conversion/
exchange-rates.htm
IISD.org/gsi 1
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
HowtoTargetResidentialElectricitySubsidiesinIndia:Step2.EvaluatingPolicyOptionsin
theStateofJharkhand
UnpackingIndia’sElectricitySubsidies:Reporting,Transparency,andEfficacy
Themethodologyusedinthisreporttotrackthedistributionofsubsidybenefitsisthesameastheonethathasbeenusedinpreviousstudiesonelectricitysubsidies.
IISD.org/gsi 2
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
2.0BackgroundofLPGSubsidiesinIndia
2.1LPGSubsidyPoliciesinIndia
IndiaprovidessubsidiesforLPGconsumptionandconnectionsthroughthePratyakshHanstantritLabhYojana(PAHAL)andPradhanMantriUjjwalaYojana(PMUY)schemes,respectively.Itsobjectiveistohelphouseholdstransitionawayfromtraditionalsolidcookingfuels,whichareresponsibleforhighlevelsofindoorairpollutionthatprimarilyaffectswomenandyoungchildren.
ThePAHALscheme(alsoknownastheDirectBenefitTransferforLPG[DBTL])wasintroducedin2014.ItaimstoreduceillegalconnectionsanddiversionofsubsidizedLPGcylindersbyrequiringconsumerstobuyLPGatthemarketprice,onlyafterwardstransferringsubsidiesdirectlyintopeople’sbankaccounts(MinistryofPetroleumandNaturalGas[MoPNG],2020e).SubsidizedLPGissoldas14.2-kgor5-kgcylindersthroughdistributorsforthreenationaloilmarketingcompanies(OMCs).TopurchasesubsidizedLPG,householdsmustenrolthemselvesintheregistrybelongingtotheOMCthatservicestheirareausingaformofpersonalidentification(initially,Aadharcards)registeredtoahouseholdmemberandmeettheeligibilitycriteriaofanannualhouseholdincomeoflessthanINR10lakh(USD13,494).
Whenitwasfirstintroduced,PAHALseemedtosucceedinreducingillegalconnectionsanddiversionbecausethenumberofbeneficiariesfell.Uponcloserexamination,however,itsimpactsweremoreambiguous,asmanypoorhouseholdsweresimplyunabletoregisterduetotheAadharmechanismandotherbarrierstoregistration(Jainetal.,2016).
ThePMUYschemewaslaunchedundertheMoPNGin2016.Itsinitialgoalwastoprovide5crore(50million)LPGconnectionstopoorhouseholdsatasubsidyofINR1,600(USD21.59)perconnectionoverthreeyears(MoPNG,2016).Underthepolicy,a“connection”referredtoalltheup-frontcostsofstartingtouseLPG:afirstLPGcylinder(whichcouldsubsequentlybeswappedforrefillsunderPAHAL),anLPGstove,andassociatedequipment.Thepolicycoveredaroundhalfofthecosts.Householdscouldeitherpaytheotherhalfthemselvesortakealoan,whichwouldbeservicedbyforegoingPAHALsubsidiesuntilitwasrepaid.
AdistinguishingfeatureofPMUYwasitsintegrationofgenderconsiderations:itissuedLPGconnectionsonlyinthenamesofwomenfrompoorhouseholds(MoPNG,2020f).In2018,thegovernmentachieveditstargetfornewconnectionsandrevisedthe2019targetupwardto80millionLPGconnections(Sharma,Singhetal.,2019).BySeptember2019,itreportedhavingachievedthistarget(MoPNG,2020f).InFebruary2021,thegovernmentannounceditwasextendingPMUYtoanother1crore(10million)consumers(MinistryofFinance,2021).
DespitethesuccessofPMUYinhelpinghouseholdsuseLPGforthefirsttime,thenumberofhouseholdscitinghighcostsandhighmonthlyexpensesasbarrierstoLPGuseremainedhigh,at92%in2018(Jainetal.,2018).Mediareportingsuggestedthat,inparticular,households
IISD.org/gsi 3
HowtoTargetLPGSubsidiesinIndia
werestrugglingtoaffordthecostofLPGconsumptionbecausetheINR1,600inassistanceunderPMUYhadtobepaidbackbyforegoingpartialPAHALsubsidiesininstalmentsonLPGrefills(Sanghera,2019;Sharmaetal.,2019b;Yadavar,2019).DataonfuelconsumptionshowedthatmanyhouseholdshadbeguntouseLPGbuthadnottransitionedawayfromtraditi
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