AdministrativeDecentralizationandPoliticalPowerHerbertKaufman精選pptTheadministrativehistoryofourgovernmentalmachinerycanbeconstructedasasuccessionofshiftsofthiskind,eachbroughtaboutbyachangeinemphasisamongthreevalues:representativeness,politicalneutralcompetence,andexecutiveleadership.Noneofthesevalueswasnevertotallyneglectedinanyofourpastmodificationsofgovernmentaldesign,buteachenjoyedgreateremphasisthantheothersindifferentperiods.精選pptRecentyearshavewitnessedanupsurgeofasenseofalienationonthepartofmanypeople,toafeelingthattheyasindividualscannoteffectivelyregistertheirownpreferencesonthedecisionsemanatingfromtheorgansofgovernment.Newmodesofrepresentationtokeeppacewithneweconomic,socialandpoliticaldevelopmentBurgeoningoflarge-scaleorganizationsineveryeraoflife精選pptCurrentDissatisfactionAmericaisnotwantinginarrangementsforrepresentation.Whyistheredissatisfactionwiththesearrangements?精選pptFundamentallybecausesubstantial(thoughminority)segmentsofthepopulationapparentlybelievethepolitical,economic,andsocialsystemshavenotdeliveredtothemfairsharesofthesystem’sbenefitsandrewardsandbecausetheythinktheycannotwintheirappropriatesharesinthosebenefitsandrewardsthroughthepoliticalinstitutionsaroundthecountryasthesearenowconstituted.精選pptThreecharacteristicsofthesystemcontributeheavilytothisimpressiononthepartofthedeprived:Existingrepresentativeorgansarecapableofgivingonlyquitegeneralmandatestoadministrativeagencies,yetitisintheday-to-daydecisionsandactionsofofficialsandemployeesinthelowerlevelsthatindividualcitizensperceivethepolicies.Thepluralisticnatureofthepoliticalsystemprovidesabundantopportunitiesforvetoesbyopponentsofchange.Thescaleoforganizationinoursocietyhasgrownsolargethatonlythroughlarge-scaleorganizationdoesitseempossibletohaveasignificantimpact.精選pptJustastheadaptationofgovernmentaldesignduringthepastcenturyhasgravitatedtowardfurnishingexpertiseandleadership,soitisnowunderpressurefromseveralquarterstoaccordagreaterroletorepresentativeness.精選pptMoreRepresentativeAdministrativeAgenciesOnetypeofproposalformakingadministrativeagenciesmorerepresentativeistraditionalincharacter:situating

spokesmenfortheinterestsaffectedinstrategicpositionswithintheorganizations.Suchplansdonotrequiredrasticmodificationofexistingorganizations,andtheirobjectivescouldprobablybemetbychangesinpersonnelathighorganizationallevels.精選pptMoreRepresentativeAdministrativeAgenciesMoreunorthodox,butswiftlygainingacceptance,istheconceptofacentralizedgovernmentalcomplaintbureau,clothedwithlegalpowersofinvestigation,tolookintocitizencomplaintsagainstadministrativeagenciesandtocorrectinequitiesandabuses.Onlyaspecializedfulltimeofficial,wiseinthewaysofbureaucracy,havingavestedinterestincorrectingitserrors,andsupportedbyadequatestaffandauthorityIttakesabureaucrattocontrolabureaucrat.精選pptMoreRepresentativeAdministrativeAgenciesThemostsweepingexpressionoftheunrestoverlackofrepresentativenessisthegrowingdemandforextremeadministrativedecentralization,frequentlycoupledwithinsistenceonlocalclienteledominationofthedecentralizedorganizations.Waronpoverty:runbythepoor,notmerelyforthepoorEducationPublichousing,hospitals,policeNotconfinedtopublicagencies,itreachedintocollegesanduniversities精選pptButitisgovernmentspherethatthetendencyhasbeenwinningwidestendorsement.AmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation:Discoverviablesmallerunitswithinwhichcitizenscanfromtimetotimeformulateandexpresstheirdesires,consultwithofficials,andinsomecasesparticipateevenmorefullyindecisions.AdvisoryCommissiononIntergovernmentalRelations:Authorizingcountiesandlargecitiestoestablish,andattheirdiscretiontoabolish,neighborhoodsubunitsendowedwithlimitedpowersoftaxationandlocalself-government.Onereasonpeopleareshoutingsoloudlytodayisthatit’sfarfromwheretheyaretowherethepoweris.Powershouldbebroughtclosertothemratherthanexercisedfromremotecenters.Reformersofearliergenerationssucceededinraisingthelevelexpertiseandprofessionalisminthebureaucracies,andtoalesserextent,inimprovingcapacityofchiefexecutivestocontroltheadministrativearmsofgovernment.精選pptThecontinuingsearchforleadershipPublicbureaucraciesareunderfirenotonlyfromcriticsoutsidethemachineryofgovernment,butalsofrominside.ChiefExecutiveareincreasinglyconcernedabouttheunresponsivenessofagenciestotheirleadership.精選pptNewwavesofadministrativereorganizationproposals.Rationalizing,enlargingandstrengtheningtheexecutive-officestaffsoftheheadsofgovernmentalunitsatalllevels;buildingupthestaffsoftheadministratorswhoreportdirectlytotheheads.Strengtheningexecutiveleadershipthroughwhatitsadvocateswillcall“decentralization”,butwhich,infact,isbettercharacterizedasorganizationbyareaasopposedtothepresentalmostexclusiveorganizationbyfunctionaldepartmentsandbureaus.精選pptConflictandCoalitionMuchpublicpolicyisshapedlargelybyclustersofbureaus,theirorganizedclienteles,andlegislativecommitteesandlegislatorsspecializingineachpublicfunction.Offsetfragmentationofgovernmentbyintroducingsufficientcentraldirectiontounifythepoliciesandadministration.Participationofthehithertoexcludedandunorganizedinterests精選pptconflictResistbybureausandlegislatorsUnwillingnesstosharetheirinfluencewithothers.ThreatenvaluesthepresentarrangementsprotectIntrusionofpartisanpoliticsintofieldsNegationofexpertisebuiltupbythespecialist.LegislatorsStrongregionalofficialsresponsivetochiefexecutivesandtheircabinetsisexecutiveattemptstoinvadelegislativedistricts.精選pptcoalitionTroubledchiefexecutivesatalllevelscouldconceivablymakecommoncausewithoneanother.Proceduresinmanyintergovernmentalprogramsareirritatinglyslow.Proceduresareoftenlabyrinthineanduncoordinated.Federalgrantsforveryspecificpurposesencourageatendencytoward“amoreorlessindependentgovernmentoftheirown”onthepartoffunctionalspecialistsatalllevelsofgovernmentwhoareonlynominallyunderthecontroloftheirrespectivechiefexecutives.精選pptConfluenceofleadershipandrepresentativenessGroupsclamoringforlocalcontrolofadministrativeprograms,confrontedwiththesuspicionandresentmentofbureaucraciesandtheirlegislativeandinterest-groupallies,willprobablydiscoverthattheygettheirmostsympathetichearingsfromchiefexecuti