華中師范大學(xué)物理學(xué)院

物理學(xué)專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)

僅供內(nèi)部學(xué)習(xí)參考！

2014

一、課程的任務(wù)和教學(xué)目的

通過(guò)學(xué)習(xí)《物理學(xué)專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)》，學(xué)生將掌握物理學(xué)領(lǐng)域使用頻率較高的專(zhuān)業(yè)詞匯和表

達(dá)方法，進(jìn)而具備根本的閱讀理解物理學(xué)專(zhuān)業(yè)文獻(xiàn)的能力。通過(guò)分析《物理學(xué)專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)》

課程教材中的范文，學(xué)生還將從英語(yǔ)角度理解物理學(xué)中個(gè)學(xué)科的研究?jī)?nèi)容和主要思想，提

高學(xué)生的專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)能力和了解物理學(xué)研究前沿的能力。

培養(yǎng)專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)閱讀能力，了解科技英語(yǔ)的特點(diǎn)，提高專(zhuān)業(yè)外語(yǔ)的閱讀質(zhì)量和閱讀速度;

掌握一定量的本專(zhuān)業(yè)英文詞匯，根本到達(dá)能夠獨(dú)立完成一般性本專(zhuān)業(yè)外文資料的閱讀；到

達(dá)一定的筆譯水平。要求譯文通順、準(zhǔn)確和專(zhuān)業(yè)化。要求譯文通順、準(zhǔn)確和專(zhuān)業(yè)化。

二、課程內(nèi)容

課程內(nèi)容包括以下章節(jié)：物理學(xué)、經(jīng)典力學(xué)、熱力學(xué)、電磁學(xué)、光學(xué)、原子物理、統(tǒng)

計(jì)力學(xué)、量子力學(xué)和狹義相對(duì)論

三、根本要求

1.充分利用課內(nèi)時(shí)間保證充足的閱讀量（約1200?1500詞/學(xué)時(shí)），要求TF確理解原

文。

2.泛讀適量課外相關(guān)英文讀物，要求根本理解原文主要內(nèi)容。

3.掌握根本專(zhuān)業(yè)詞匯（不少于200詞）。

4.應(yīng)具有流利閱讀、翻譯及賞析專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)文獻(xiàn)，并能簡(jiǎn)單地進(jìn)行寫(xiě)作的能力。

四、參考書(shū)

目錄

1Physics物理學(xué)0

IntroductiontophysicsO

Classicalandmodernphysics1

Researchfields3

V6cabulary6

2Classicalmechanics經(jīng)典力學(xué)8

Introductions

Descriptionofclassicalmechanics9

Momentumandcollisions11

Angularmomentum13

Vocabulary14

3Thermodynamics熱力學(xué)15

Introduction15

Lawsofthermodynamics18

Systemmodels20

Thermodynamicprocesses24

Scopeofthermodynamics27

Vbcabulary28

4Electromagnetism電磁學(xué)29

Introduction29

Electrostatics30

Magnetostatics32

Electromagneticinduction36

Vbcabulary38

5Optics光學(xué)39

Introduction39

Geometricaloptics40

Physicaloptics41

Polarization44

Vbcabulary45

6Atomicphysics原子物理46

Introduction46

Electronicconfiguration47

Excitationandionization50

Vbcabulary53

7Statisticalmechanics統(tǒng)計(jì)力學(xué)54

Overview54

Fundamentals54

Statisticalensembles56

Vocabulary59

8Quantummechanics量子力學(xué)59

Introduction59

Mathematicalformulations61

Quantization64

Wave-particleduality65

Quantumentanglement67

Vbcabulary69

9Specialrelativity狹義相對(duì)論71

Introduction71

Relativityofsimultaneity??

Lorentztransfbrmations73

Timedilationandlengthcontraction73

Mass-energyequivalence74

Relativisticenergy-momentumrelation78

Vocabulary81

正文標(biāo)記說(shuō)明：

藍(lán)色Arial字體（例如energy）：的專(zhuān)業(yè)詞匯

藍(lán)色Arial字體加下劃線（例如electromaanetism）：新學(xué)的專(zhuān)業(yè)詞匯

黑色TimesNewRoman字體加下劃線（例如postulate）：新學(xué)的普通詞匯

1Physics物理學(xué)

Introductiontophysics

Physicsisapartofnaturalphilosophyandanaturalsciencethatinvolvesthestudyof

matteranditsmotionthroughspaceandtime,alongwithrelatedconceptssuchasenergyand

force.Morebroadly,itisthegeneralanalysisofnature,conductedinordertounderstandhowthe

universebehaves.

Physicsisoneoftheoldestacademicdisciplines,perhapstheoldestthroughitsinclusionof

astronomy.Overthelasttwomillennia,physicswasapartofnaturalphilosophyalongwith

chemistry,certainbranchesofmathematics,andbiology,butduringtheScientificRevolutionin

the17thcentury,thenaturalsciencesemergedasuniqueresearchprogramsintheirownright.

Physicsintersectswithmanyinterdisciplinarvareasofresearch,suchasbiophysicsandauantum

Chemistry,andtheboundariesofphysicsarenotrigidlydefined.Newideasinphysicsoften

explainthefundamentalmechanismsofothersciences,whileopeningnewavenuesofresearchin

areassuchasmathematicsandphilosophy.

Physicsalsomakessignificantcontributionsthroughadvancesinnewtechnologiesthatarise

fromtheoreticalbreakthroughs.Forexample,advancesintheunderstandingofelectromagnetism

ornuclearphysicsleddirectlytothedevelopmentofnewproductswhichhavedramatically

transformedmodern-daysociety,suchastelevision,computers,domesticappliances,and

nuclearweapons；advancesintherrriodvnamicsledtothedevelopmentofindustrialization；and

advancesinmechanicsinspiredthedevelopmentofcalculus.

Coretheories

Thoughphysicsdealswithawidevarietyofsystems,certaintheoriesareusedbyallphysicists.

Eachofthesetheorieswereexperimentallytestednumeroustimesandfoundcorrectasan

approximationofnature(withinacertaindomainofvalidity).

Forinstance,thetheoryofclassicalmechanicsaccuraielcdescribesthemotionofobjects,

providedtheyaremuchlargerthanatomsandmovingatmuchlessthanthespeedoflight.These

theoriescontinuetobeareasofactiveresearch,andaremarkableaspectofclassicalmechanics

knownaschaoswasdiscoveredinthe20thcentury,threecenturiesaftertheoriginalfonnulation

ofclassicalmechanicsbyIsaacNewton(1642-1727)【艾薩克?牛頓】.

Thesecentraltheoriesareimportanttoolsforresearchintomorespecializedtopics,andany

physicist,regardlessofhisorherspecialization,isexpectedtobeliterateinthem.Theseinclude

classicalmechanics,ouantummechanics,thermodvnamicsandstatisticalmechanics.

eleclromaqretism,andspecialrelatMty.

Classicalandmodernphysics

Classicalmechanics

Classicalphysicsincludesthetraditionalbranchesandtopicsthatwererecognizedand

well-developedbeforethebeginningofthe20thcentury-classicalmechanics,acoustics,optics,

thermodynamics,andelectromagnetism.

Classicalmechanicsisconcernedwithbodiesactedonbyforcesandbodiesinmotionand

maybedividedintostatics(studyoftheforcesonabodyorbodiesatrest),kinematics(studyof

motionwithoutregardtoitscauses),anddynamics(studyofmotionandtheforcesthataffectit);

mechanicsmayalsobedividedintosolidmechanicsandfluidmechanics(knowntogetheras

continuummechanics),thelatterincludingsuchbranchesashydrostatics,hydrodynamics,

aerodynamics,andpneumatics.

Acousticsisthestudyofhowsoundisproduced,controlled,transmittedandreceived.

Importantmodembranchesofacousticsincludeultrasonics,thestudyofsoundwavesofvery

highfrequencybeyondtherangeofhumanhearing;bioacousticsthephysicsofanimalcallsand

hearing,andelectroacoustics,themanipulationofaudiblesoundwavesusingelectronics.

Optics,thestudyoflight,isconcernednotonlywithvisiblelightbutalsowithinfraredand

ultravioletradiatior,whichexhibitallofthephenomenaofvisiblelightexceptvisibility,e.g.,

reflection,refraction,interference,diffraction,dispersion,andpolarizationoflight.

Heatisaformofenergy,theinternalenerqyposscsscdbytheparticlesofwhichasubstance

iscomposed;thermodynamicsdealswiththerelationshipsbetweenheatandotherformsof

energy.

Electridtvandmaanetismhavebeenstudiedasasinglebranchofphysicssincetheintimate

connectionbetweenthemwasdiscoveredintheearly19thcentury;anelectriccurrentgivesriseto

amagneticfieldandachangingmagneticfieldinducesanelectriccurrent.Electrostaticsdeals

withelectricchargesatrest,electrodynamicswithmovingcharges,andmagnetostaticswith

magneticpolesatrest.

ModernPhysics

Classicalphysicsisgenerallyconcernedwithmatterandenergyonthenormalscaleof

observation,whilemuchofmodernphysicsisconcernedwiththebehaviorofmatterandenergy

underextremeconditionsorontheverylargeorverysmallscale.

Forexample,atomicandnuclearphysicsstudiesmatteronthesmallestscaleatwhich

chemicalelementscanbeidentified.

Thephysicsofelementaryparticlesisonanevensmallerscale,asitisconcernedwiththe

mostbasicunitsofmatter;thisbranchofphysicsisalsoknownashigh-energyphysicsbecauseof

theextremelyhighenergiesnecessarytoproducemanytypesofparticlesinlargeparticle

accelerators.Onthisscale,ordinary,commonsensenotionsofspace,time,matter,andenergyare

nolongervalid.

Thetwochieftheoriesofmodernphysicspresentadifferentpictureoftheconceptsofspace,

time,andmatterfromthatpresentedbyclassicalphysics.

Quantumtheoryisconcernedwiththediscrete,ratherthancontinuous,natureofmany

phenomenaattheatomicandsubatomiclevel,andwiththecomplemnniaryaspectsofparticlesand

wavesinthedescriptionofsuchphenomena.

Thetheoryotrelativityisconcernedwiththedescriptionofphenomenathattakeplaceina

frameofreferencethatisinmotionwithrespecttoanobserver;thespecialtheoryofrelatMtyis

concernedwithrelativeuniformmotioninastraightlineandthegeneraltheoryofrelativitvwith

acceleratedmotionanditsconnectionwithqcavitation.

Bothquantumtheoryandthetheoryofrelativityfindapplicationsinallareasofmodern

physics.

Differencebetweenclassicalandmodernphysics

Whilephysicsaimstodiscoveruniversallaws,itstheorieslieinexplicitdomainsof

applicability.Looselyspeaking,thelawsofclassicalphysicsaccuratelydescribesystemswhose

importantlengthscalesaregreaterthantheatomicscaleandwhosemotionsaremuchslowerthan

thespeedoflight.Outsideofthisdomain,observationsdonotmatchtheirpredictions.

AlbertEinstein【阿爾伯特?愛(ài)因斯坦】contributedtheframeworkofspecialrelativity,which

replacednotionsofabsolutetimeandspacewithspace-timeandallowedanaccurate

descriptionofsystemswhosecomponentshavespeedsapproachingthespeedoflight.

MaxPlanck【普朗克】，ErwinSchrodinger【薛定詩(shī)】，andothersintroducedquantum

mechanics,aprobabilisticnotionofparticlesandinteractionsthatallowedanaccuratedescription

ofatomicandsubatomicscales.

Later,quantumfieldtheoryunifiedquantummechanicsandspecialrelativity.

Generalrelativityallowedforadynamical,curvedspace-time,withwhichhighlymassive

systemsandthelarge-scalestructureoftheuniversecanbewell-described.Generalrelativityhas

notyetbeenunifiedwiththeotherfundamentaldescriptions;severalcandidatetheoriesof

quantumgravityarebeingdeveloped.

Researchfields

Contemporaryresearchinphysicscanbebroadlydividedintocondensedmatterphysics；

atomic,molecular,andopticalphysics；particlephysics；astrophysics：geophysicsand

biophysics.SomephysicsdepartmentsalsosupportresearchinPhysicseducation.

Sincethe20thcentury,theindividualfieldsofphysicshavebecomeincreasinglyspecialized,

andtodaymostphysicistsworkinasinglefieldfortheirentirecareers.''Univcrsalists"suchas

AlbertEinstein(1879-1955)andLevLandau(1908-1968)【列夫?朗道】,whoworkedinmultiple

fieldsofphysics,arenowveryrare.

Condensedmatterphysics

Condensedmatterphysicsisthefieldofphysicsthatdealswiththemacroscopicphysical

propertiesofmatter.Inparticular,itisconcernedwiththe"condensed*1phasesthatappear

wheneverthenumberofparticlesinasystemisextremelylargeandtheinteractionsbetweenthem

arestrong.

Themostfamiliarexamplesofcondensedphasesaresolidsandliquids,whicharisefromthe

bondingbywayoftheelectromagneticforcebetweenatoms.Moreexoticcondensedphases

includethesuper-fluidandtheBose-Einsteincondensatefoundincertainatomicsystemsat

verylowtemperature,thesuperconductinqphaseexhibitedbyconductionelectronsincertain

materials,andtheferromaaneticandanUferromainetiCDhasesofspinsonatomiclattices.

Condensedmatterphysicsisbyfarthelargestfieldofcontemporaryphysics.

Historically,condensedmatterphysicsgrewoutofsolid-statephysics,whichisnow

consideredoneofitsmainsubficlds.Thetermcondensedmatterphysicswasapparentlycoinedby

PhilipAndersonwhenherenamedhisresearchgroup-previouslysolid-statetheory-in1967.In

1978,theDivisionofSolidSlatePhysicsoftheAmericanPhysicalSocietywasrenamedasthe

DivisionofCondensedMatterPhysics.

Condensedmatterphysicshasalargeoverlapwithchemistry,materialsscience,

nanotechnologyandengineering.

Atomic,molecularandopticalphysics

Atomic,molecular,andopticalphysics(AMO)isthestudyofmatter-matterand

light-matterinteractionsonthescaleofsingleatomsandmolecules.

Thethreeareasaregroupedtogetherbecauseoftheirinterrelationships,thesimilarityof

methodsused,andthecommonalityoftheenergyscalesthatarerelevant.Allthreeareasinclude

bothclassical,semi-classicalandquantumtreatments；theycantreattheirsubjectfroma

microscooicview(incontrasttoamacroscopicview).

Atomicphysicsstudiestheelectronshellsofatoms.Currentresearchfocusesonactivitiesin

quantumcontrol,coolingandtrappingofatomsandions,low-temperaturecollisiondynamicsand

theeffectsofelectroncorrelationonstructureanddynamics.Atomicphysicsisinfluencedbythe

nucleus(see,e.g.,hyperfinesplitting),butintra-nuclearphenomenasuchasfissionandfusion

areconsideredpartofhigh-energyphysics.

Molecularphysicsfocusesonmulti-atomicstructuresandtheirinternalandexternal

interactionswithmatterandlight.

Opticalphysicsisdistinctfromopticsinthatittendstofocusnotonthecontrolofclassical

lightfieldsbymacroscopicobjects,butonthefundamentalpropertiesofopticalfieldsandtheir

interactionswithmatterinthemicroscopicrealm.

High-energyphysics(particlephysics)andnuclearphysics

Particlephysicsisthestudyoftheelementaryconstituentsofmatterandenergy,andthe

interactionsbetweenthem.Inaddition,particlephysicistsdesignanddevelopthehighenergy

accelerators.detectors,andcomputerprogramsnecessaryforthisresearch.Thefieldisalso

called"high-energyphysics'*becausemanyelementaryparticlesdonotoccurnaturally,butare

createdonlyduringhigh-energycollisionsofotherparticles.

Currently,theinteractionsofelementaryparticlesandfieldsaredescribedbytheStandard

Model.

?Themodelaccountsforthe12knownparticlesofmatter(quarksandleptons)that

interactviathestrong,weak,andelectromagneticfundamentalforces.

?Dynamicsaredescribedintermsofmatterparticlesexchanginggaugebosons(gluons,

WandZbosons,andphotons,respectively).

?TheStandardModelalsopredictsaparticleknownastheHiqqsboson.InJuly2012

CERN,theEuropeanlaboratoryforparticlephysics,announcedthedetectionofaparticle

consistentwiththeHiggsboson.

NuclearPhysicsisthefieldofphysicsthatstudiestheconstituentsandinteractionsofatomic

nuclei.Themostcommonlyknownapplicationsofnuclearphysicsarenuclearpowergeneration

andnuclearweaponstechnology,buttheresearchhasprovidedapplicationinmanyfields,

includingthoseinnuclearmedicineandmaaneticresonanceimaaing,ionimplantationin

materialsengineering,andradiocarbondatinqinaeoloavandarchaeoloov.

AstrophysicsandPhysicalCosmology

Astrophysicsandastronomyarctheapplicationofthetheoriesandmethodsofphysicstothe

studyofstellarstructure,stellarevolution,theoriginofthesolarsystem,andrelatedproblems

ofcosmoloqv.Becauseastrophysicsisabroadsubject,astrophysiciststypicallyapplymany

disciplinesofphysics,includingmechanics,electromagnetism,statisticalmechanics,

thermodynamics,quantummechanics,relativity,nuclearandparticlephysics,andatomicand

molecularphysics.

ThediscoverybyKarlJanskyin1931thatradiosignalswereemittedbycelestialbodies

initiatedthescienceofradioastronomy.Mostrecently,thefrontiersofastronomyhavebeen

expandedbyspaceexploration.Perturbationsandinterferencefromtheearth'satmospheremake

space-basedobservationsnecessaryforinfrared,ultraviolet,gamma-ray,andX-rayastronomy.

Physicalcosmologyisthestudyoftheformationandevolutionoftheuniverseonitslargest

scales.AlbertEinstein'stheoryofrelativityplaysacentralroleinallmodemcosmologicaltheories.

Intheearly20thcentury,Hubble'sdiscoverythattheuniversewasexpanding,asshownbythe

Hubblediagram,promptedrivalexplanationsknownasthesteadystateuniverseandtheBig

Bang.

TheBigBangwasconfirmedbythesuccessofBigBangnucleo-svnthesisandthediscovery

ofthecosmicmicrowavebackgroundin1964.TheBigBangmodelrestsontwotheoretical

pillars:AlbertEinstein'sgeneralrelativityandthecosmologicalprinciple(Onasufficientlylarge

scale,thepropertiesoftheUniversearethesameforallobservers).Cosmologistshaverecently

establishedtheACDMmodel(thestandardmodelofBigBangcosmology)oftheevolutionofthe

universe,whichincludescosmicinflation,darkenergyanddarkmatter.

Currentresearchfrontiers

Incondensedmatterphysics,animportantunsolvedtheoreticalproblemisthatof

high-temperaturesuperconductivity.Manycondensedmatterexperimentsareaimingtofabricate

workablespintronicsandquantumcomputers.

Inparticlephysics,thefirstpiecesofexperimentalevidenceforphysicsbeyondtheStandard

Modelhavebeguntoappear.Foremostamongtheseareindicationsthatneutrinoshavenon-zero

mass.Theseexperimentalresultsappeartohavesolvedthelong-standingsolarneutrinoproblem,

andthephysicsofmassiveneutrinosremainsanareaofactivetheoreticalandexperimentalresearch.

ParticleacceleratorshavebegunprobingenergyscalesintheTeVrange,inwhich

experimentalistsarehopingtofindevidenceforthesuper-symmetricparticles,afterdiscoveryof

theHiggsboson.

Theoreticalattemptstounifyquantummechanicsandgeneralrelativityintoasingletheory

ofquantumgravity,aprogramongoingfbroverhalfacentury,havenotyetbeendecisively

resolved.ThecurrentleadingcandidatesareM-theory,superstrinqtheoryandloopquantum

gravity.

Manyastronomicalandcosmologicalphenomenahaveyettobesatisfactorilyexplained,

includingtheexistenceofultra-highenergycosmicrays,thebarvonasymmetry,the

accelerationoftheuniverseandtheanomalousrotationratesofgalaxies.

Althoughmuchprogresshasbeenmadeinhigh-energy,quantum,andastronomicalphysics,

manyeverydayphenomenainvolvingcomplexity,chaos,orturbulencearestillpoorly

understood.Complexproblemsthatseemliketheycouldbesolvedbyacleverapplicationof

dynamicsandmechanicsremainunsolved;examplesincludetheformationofsand-piles,nodesin

tricklingwater,theshapeofwaterdroplets,mechanismsofsurfacetensioncatastrophes,and

self-sortinginshakenheterogeneouscollections.

Thesecomplexphenomenahavereceivedgrowingattentionsincethe1970sforseveral

reasons,includingtheavailabilityofmodemmathematicalmethodsandcomputers,whichenabled

complexsystemstobemodeledinnewways.Complexphysicshasbecomepartofincreasingly

interdisciplinaryresearch,asexemplifiedbythestudyofturbulenceinaerodynamicsandthe

observationofpatternformationinbiologicalsystems.

Vocabulary

★naturalscience自然科學(xué)★thermodynamicsandstatisticalmechanics熱力

academicdisciplines學(xué)科學(xué)與統(tǒng)計(jì)物理

astronomy天文學(xué)★specialrelativity狹義相對(duì)論

intheirownright憑他們本身的實(shí)力isconcernedwith關(guān)注，討論，考慮

intersects相交，交叉acoustics聲學(xué)

interdisciplinary交叉學(xué)科的，跨學(xué)科的★optics光學(xué)

★quantum量子的statics靜力學(xué)

theoreticalbreakthroughs理論突破atrest靜息

★electromagnetism電磁學(xué)kinematics運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)

dramatically顯著地★dynamics動(dòng)力學(xué)

★thermodynamics熱力學(xué)ultrasonics超聲學(xué)

★calculus微積分manipulation操作，處理，使用

validity有效性，正確性infrared紅外

★classicalmechanics經(jīng)典力學(xué)ultraviolet紫夕卜

chaos混沌radiation輻射

literate學(xué)者reflection反射

★quantummechanics量子力學(xué)refraction折射

★interference干預(yù)★Society社會(huì)，學(xué)會(huì)

★diffraction衍射★microscopic微觀的

dispersion散射hyperfinesplitting超精細(xì)分裂

★polarization極化，偏振fission分裂，裂變

internalenergy內(nèi)能fusion熔合，聚變

Electricity電性constituents成分，組分

Magnetism磁性accelerators力口速器

intimate親密的detectors檢測(cè)器

induces誘導(dǎo)，感應(yīng)★quarks夸克

scale尺度lepton輕子

★elementaryparticles根本粒子gaugebosons標(biāo)準(zhǔn)玻色子

★high-energyphysics高能物理gluons膠子

particleaccelerators粒子加速器★Higgsboson希格斯玻色子

valid有效的，正當(dāng)?shù)腃ERN歐洲核子研究中心

★discrete離散的★MagneticResonanceImaging磁共振成像，核

continuous連續(xù)的磁共振

complementary互補(bǔ)的ionimplantation離子注入

★frameofreference參照系radiocarbondating放射性碳年代測(cè)定法

★thespecialtheoryofrelativity狹義相對(duì)論geology地質(zhì)學(xué)

★generaltheoryofrelativity廣義相對(duì)論archaeology考古學(xué)

gravitation重力,萬(wàn)有引力stellar恒星

explicit詳細(xì)的，清楚的cosmology宇宙論

★candidate候選的，候選人celestialbodies天體

★quantumfieldtheory量子場(chǎng)論Hubblediagram哈勃圖

★condensedmatterphysics凝聚態(tài)物理rval競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的

astrophysics天體物理★BigBang大爆炸

geopnysics地球物理nucleo-synthesis核聚合，核合成

Universalist博學(xué)多才者pillar支柱

cosmologicalprinciple宇宙學(xué)原理

★Macroscopic宏觀

ACDMmodelA-冷暗物質(zhì)模型

Exotic奇異的

cosmicinflation宇宙膨脹

★Superconducting超導(dǎo)

fabricate制造，建造

Ferromagnetic鐵磁質(zhì)

spintronics自旋電子元件，自旋電子學(xué)

Antiferromagnetic反鐵磁質(zhì)

★中微子

★Spn自旋neutrinos

超弦

lattice晶格?點(diǎn)陣，網(wǎng)格superstring

baryon重子heterogeneouscollections異質(zhì)性集合

turbulence湍流,擾動(dòng)，騷動(dòng)patternformation模式形成

catastrophes突變，災(zāi)變，災(zāi)難

2Classicalmechanics經(jīng)典力學(xué)

Introduction

Inphysics,classicalmechanicsisoneofthetwomajorsub-fieldsofmechanics,whichis

concernedwiththesetofphysicallawsdescribingthemotionofbodiesundertheactionofa

systemofforces.Thestudyofthemotionofbodiesisanancientone,makingclassicalmechanics

oneoftheoldestandlargestsubjectsinscience,engineeringandtechnology.

Classicalmechanicsdescribesthemotionofmacroscopicobjects,fromprojectilestopartsof

machinery,aswellasastronomicalobjects,suchasspacecraft,planets,stars,andgalaxies.

Besidesthis,manyspecializationswithinthesubjectdealwithgases,liquids,solids,andother

specificsub-topics.

Classicalmechanicsprovidesextremelyaccurateresultsaslongasthedomainofstudyis

restrictedtolargeobjectsandthespeedsinvolveddonotapproachthespeedoflight.Whenthe

objectsbeingdealtwithbecomesufficientlysmall,itbecomesnecessarytointroducetheother

majorsub-fieldofmechanics,Quantummechanics,whichreconcilesthemacroscopiclawsof

physicswiththeatomicnatureofmatterandhandlesthewave-particledualityofatomsand

molecules.Inthecaseofhighvelocityobjectsapproachingthespeedoflight,classicalmechanicsis

enhancedbyspecialrelativity.GeneralrelativityunifiesspecialrelativitywithNewton'slawof

universalgravitation,allowingphysiciststohandlegravitationatadeeperlevel.

TheinitialstageinthedevelopmentofclassicalmechanicsisoftenreferredtoasNewtonian

mechanics,andisassociatedwiththephysicalconceptsemployedbyandthemathematical

methodsinventedbyNewtonhimself,inparallelwithLeibniz【萊布尼茲】，andothers.

Later,moreabstractandgeneralmethodsweredeveloped,leadingtoreformulationsof

classicalmechanicsknownasLaaranqianmechanicsandHamHtonianmechanics.These

advanceswerelargelymadeinthe18thand19thcenturies,andtheyextendsubstantiallybeyond

Newton'swork,particularlythroughtheiruseofanalyticalmechanics.Ultimately,the

mathematicsdevelopedforthesewerecentraltothecreationofquantummechanics.

Descriptionofclassicalmechanics

Thefollowingintroducesthebasicconceptsofclassicalmechanics.Forsimplicity,itoften

modelsreal-worldobjectsaspointparticles,objectswithnegligiblesize.Themotionofapoint

particleischaracterizedbyasmallnumberofparameters:itsposition,mass,andtheforces

appliedtoit.

Inreality,thekindofobjectsthatclassicalmechanicscandescribealwayshaveanon-zero

size.(Thephysicsofverysmallparticles,suchastheelectron,ismoreaccuratelydescribedby

quantummechanics).Objectswithnon-zerosizehavemorecomplicatedbehaviorthan

hypotheticalpointparticles,becauseoftheadditionaldeqreesoffreedom一forexample,a

baseballcanspinwhileitismoving.However,theresultsforpointparticlescanbeusedtostudy

suchobjectsbytreatingthemascompositeobjects,madeupofalargenumberofinteractingpoint

particles.Thecenterofmassofacompositeobjectbehaveslikeapointparticle.

Classicalmechanicsusescommon-sensenotionsofhowmatterandforcesexistandinteract.It

assumesthatmatter