北京師范大學(xué)

教育研究方法講座系列

教育研究中的

比較―歷史方法

Comparative-HistoricalMethod

inEducationalResearch

/sundae_meng北京師范大學(xué)

教育研究方法講座系列

Lecture1

TheEssenceof

Comparative-HistoricalStudies:

BridgingQuantitativeandQualitativeMethods

inEducationalResearch

/sundae_mengMaxWeber’sAporiaforResearchersoftheSocialSciences

"Sociologyisascienceconcerningitselfwithinterpretiveunderstandingofsocialactioninordertherebytoarriveatacausalexplanationofitscourseandconsequence.Weshallspeakof'action'insofarastheactingindividualattachesasubjectivemeaningtohisbehavior.…Actionis'social'insofarasitssubjectivemeaningtakesaccountofthebehaviorofothersandistherebyorientedinitscourse."(Weber,1978,p.4)

/sundae_mengMaxWeber’sAporiaforResearchersoftheSocialSciences

Statementsoftheproblem:Problemofinterpretivesociology:Weberstipulatesthatsociologyshouldendeavortoprovide"interpretiveunderstanding"ofthe"subjectivemeaning"underlyingsocialaction.Problemofpositivesociology:Weberatthesametimestipulatesthatsociologyshouldstrivetorender"causalexplanationofcourseandconsequencesofsocialaction.Problemofmicro-andmacro-sociology:Howcanreciprocityofsubjectivemeaningsofdifferentindividualsparticipatinginsocialinteractionbepossible?/sundae_meng1824-1920/sundae_mengJuxtaposingQuantitativeandQualitativeMethodsinEducationalResearch

/sundae_meng/sundae_mengThreeInterpretationsofWeber’sAporia

AlfredSchutzinbeginshismajorscholarlyworkThePhenomenologyoftheSocialWorld(1932/1967)thechapterentitled“TheStatementofOurProblem:MaxWeber’sBasicMethodologicalConcepts.”/sundae_meng(1899-1959)/sundae_mengThreeInterpretationsofWeber’sAporia

…Hedefines“MaxWeber’sinitialstatementofthegoalofinterpretivesociology”as“tostudysocialbehaviorbyinterpretingitssubjectivemeaningfoundintheintentionsofindividualindividuals.Theaim,then,istointerprettheactionsofindividualsinthesocialworldandthewaysinwhichindividualsgivemeaningtosocialphenomena.Buttoattainthisaim,itdoesnotsufficeeithertoobservethebehaviorofasingleindividualortocollectstatisticsaboutthebehaviorofgroupsofindividuals,asacrudeempiricismwouldhaveustobelieve.Rather,thespecialaimofsociologydemandsaspecialmethodinordertoselectthematerialsrelevanttotheparticularquestionsitraise.”(Schutz,1967,Pp.6-7)/sundae_mengThreeInterpretationsofWeber’sAporia

JurgenHabermasinhisbookOntheLogicoftheSocialSciences(1988/1967)alsostartswithWeber’saporia./sundae_mengThreeInterpretationsofWeber’sAporia

….Habermasunderlinesthat“ThedefinitionofsociologythatWebergivesinthefirstparagraphsofEconomyandSocietyappliestomethod:‘Sociologyisascienceconcerningitselfwithinterpretiveunderstandingofsocialactioninordertherebytoarriveatacausalexplanationofitscourseandconsequence’Wemayconsiderthissentenceasananswertothequestion,Howaregeneraltheoriesofsocialactionpossible?Generaltheoriesallowusetoderiveassumptionsaboutempiricalregularitiesintheformofhypothesesthatservethepurposeofexplanation.Atthesametime,andincontradistinctiontonaturalprocesses,regularitiesofsocialactionhavethepropertyofbeingunderstandable.Socialactionbelongstotheclassofintentionalactions,whichwegraspbyreconstructingtheirmeaning.”(Habermas,1988/1967,Pp.10-11)

/sundae_mengThreeInterpretationsofWeber’sAporia

GeorgH.vonWrightinhisbookExplanationandUnderstanding(1971)indicatesthattherearetwoprominenttraditionsofexplanationprevailinginthemethodologyofthesocialsciences,namelycausal/nointentionalandintentionalexplanation.Butheunderlines,“Itis…misleadingtosaythatunderstandingversusexplanationmarksthedifferencebetweentwotypesofscientificintelligibility.Butonecouldsaythattheintentionalornonintentionalcharacteroftheirobjectsmarksthedifferencebetweentwotypesofunderstandingandofexplanation.”(vonWright,1971,p.135)Insteadhedistinguishestwotraditionsofexplanationprevailinginthemethodologyofhistoryandsocialsciences,namelycausal/nointentionalandintentionalexplanation:/sundae_meng(1916-2003)/sundae_mengThreeInterpretationsofWeber’sAporia

GeorgH.vonWright…causal/nointentionalandintentionalexplanation:Causalexplanation:Itreferstothemodeofexplanation,whichattempttoseekthesufficientand/ornecessaryconditions(i.e.explanans)whichantecedethephenomenontobeexplained(i.e.explanandum).Causalexplanationsnormallypointtothepast.‘Thishappened,becausethathadoccurred’isthetypicalforminlanguage.”(vonWright,1971,p.83)Itseekstoverifytheantecedentalconditionsforanobservednaturalphenomenon.Teleologicalexplanation:Itreferstothemodeofexplanation,whichattempttorevealthegoalsand/orintentions,whichgenerateormotivatetheexplanadum(usuallyanactiontobeexplained)totakeplace.“Teleologicalexplanationspointtothefuture.‘Thishappenedinorderthatthatshouldoccur.’”(vonWright,1971,p.83)

/sundae_mengSubjectivity/ConsciousnessNaturalphenomenonMeaningcontextIntentionalityPerceptionBehaviorActionProtention—Anticipation—FulfilmentFace-to-faceinteractionExpressionExternalizationObjectivationReciprocityofperceptionsInteractionwithcontemporariesTypificationRolesInstitutionalizationLanguage&culturalcontextInstitutionalcontextSubsequentEffectAntecedentCauseObservabilityRepeatabilityObjectivityVerificationofcausalPropositionEmpiricismLogicalPositivismDeductive-nomologicalexplanation&/orInductive-probabitisticExplanationRegularityPredictabilityUniversalityIntentionalExplanationCausalExplanationRegularPatternsofSocialActionsNewInstitutionalism/sundae_mengDebatebetweenMethodologicalIndividualism&MethodologicalCollectivismThereductionismandmethodologicalindividualismF.A.Hayek:"Thereisnootherwaytowardanunderstandingofsocialphenomenabutthroughourunderstandingofindividualactionsdirecttowardotherpeopleandguidedbytheirexpectedbehavior."(quotedinLukes,1994,p.452)KarlR.Popper:"Allsocialphenomenaespeciallythefunctioningofallsocialinstitutions,shouldalwaysbeunderstoodasresultingfromthedecisions,actions,attitudes,etc.ofhumanindividuals,and…weshouldneverbesatisfiedbyanexplanationintermsofso-calledcollectives."(quotedinLike,1994,p.452)/sundae_mengDebatebetweenMethodologicalIndividualism&MethodologicalCollectivismThereductionismandmethodologicalindividualism…J.W.N.Watkins:"Iamanadvocateof…theprincipleofmethodologicalindividualism.Accordingtothisprinciple,theultimateconstituentsofsocialworldareindividualpeoplewhoactmoreorlessappropriatelyinthelightoftheirdispositionsandunderstandingoftheirsituation.Everycomplexsocialsituationoreventistheresultofaparticularconfigurationofindividuals,theirdispositions,situations,beliefsandphysicalresourcesandenvironment.Theremaybeunfinishedorhalfwayexplanationsoflarge-scalesocialphenomena(say,inflation)intermsofotherlarge-scalephenomena(say,fullemployment);butweshallhavenotarrivedatrock-bottomexplanationsofsuchlarge-scalephenomenauntilwehavededucedanaccountofthemfromstatementsaboutthedispositions,beliefs,resources,andinterrelationsofindividuals."(QuotedinLuke,1994,p.452/sundae_mengDebatebetweenMethodologicalIndividualism&MethodologicalCollectivismThereductionismandmethodologicalindividualism…JonElster:"Bythis(methodologicalindividualism)Imeanthedoctrinethatallsocialphenomena―theirstructureandtheirchange―areinprincipleexplicableinwaysthatonlyinvolveindividuals―theirproperties,theirgoals,theirbeliefsandtheiractions.Methodologicalindividualismthusconceivedisaformofreductionism.Togofromsocialinstitutionsandaggregatepatternsofbehaviortoindividualsisthesamekindofoperationasgoingfromcellstomolecules,"(QuotedinWright,1992,p.111)/sundae_mengDebatebetweenMethodologicalIndividualism&MethodologicalCollectivismClassicalsociologists’conceptionofmethodologicalcollectivismEmileDurkheim'smethodologicalcollectivismSociologyis"thestudyofsocialfacts"(Durkheim,1982/,p.50)"Asocialfactisanywayofacting,whetherfixedornot,capableofexertingovertheindividualanexternalconstraint;orwhichisgeneraloverthewholeofagivensocietywhilsthavinganexistenceofitsown,independentofitsindividualmanifestation."(1982,p.59)/sundae_mengDebatebetweenMethodologicalIndividualism&MethodologicalCollectivismClassicalsociologists’conceptionofmethodologicalcollectivismEducationasasocialfact:"Thisdefinitionofasocialfactcanbeverifiedbyexamininganexperiencethatischaracteristic.Itissufficienttoobservehowchildrenarebroughtup.Ifoneviewthefactsastheyareandindeedastheyhavealwaysbeen,itispatentlyobviousthatalleducationconsistsofacontinualefforttoimposeuponchildwaysofseeing,thinkingandactingwhichhehimselfwouldnothavearrivedatspontaneously."(1982,p.53)/sundae_mengDebatebetweenMethodologicalIndividualism&MethodologicalCollectivismEducationasasocialfact:"Eachsocietysetsupacertainideaofman,ofwhatheshouldbe,asmuchfromtheintellectualpointofviewasthephysicalandmoral;thatthisidealis,toadegree,thesamefromallcitizens,thatbeyondacertainpointitbecomesdifferentiatedaccordingtotheparticularmilieuxthateverysocietycontainsinitsstructure.Itisthisidealatthesametimeoneandthevarious,thatisthefocusofeducation.Itsfunction,then,istoarouseinthechild:(1)acertainnumberofphysicalandmentalstatesthatthesocietytowhichhebelongsconsidersshouldnotbelackinginanyofitsmembers;(2)certainphysicalandmentalstatesthattheparticularsocialgroup(caste,class,family,profession)considers,equally,oughttobefoundamongallthosewhomakeitup.Thusitissocietyasawholeandeachparticularsocialmilieuthatdeterminetheidealthateducationrealizes.Societycansurviveonlyifthereexistsamongitsmembersasufficientdegreeofhomogeneity;educationperpetuatesandreinforcesthishomogeneitybyfixinginthechild,fromthebeing,theessentialsimilaritiesthatcollectivelifedemand.Butontheotherhand,withoutacertaindiversityallco-operationwouldbeimpossible;educationassuresthepersistenceofthisnecessarydiversitybybeingitselfdiversifiedandspecialized."(2006,p.79-80)/sundae_mengDebatebetweenMethodologicalIndividualism&MethodologicalCollectivismClassicalsociologists’conceptionofmethodologicalcollectivism…"Sociologycan…bedefinedasthescienceofinstitutions,theirgenesisandtheirfuncti