1、本文獻來源于：1 董祥. 土木工程英語. 2010（9）：145-151質(zhì)量控制和安全施工1在施工中存在的質(zhì)量和安全問題質(zhì)量控制和安全問題對項目經(jīng)理來說變得越來越重要。施工過程中的設(shè)備缺陷或故障可能會導致非常大的成本。即使有輕微缺陷, 也可能需要重新建設(shè)使設(shè)施運營受損。導致成本的增加和延誤結(jié)果。在最壞的情況下，故障可能導致人身傷害甚至死亡。在施工過程中的事故可能導致人身傷害和巨大的花費。保險，檢驗和監(jiān)管的間接成本迅速增加，會導致直接成本的增加。好的項目經(jīng)理應(yīng)盡量確保在第一時間完成任務(wù)，并且在工程中沒有重大事故發(fā)生。隨著成本的控制，關(guān)于已完成設(shè)施的質(zhì)量的最重要的決策是在設(shè)計和規(guī)劃階段，而不是在施

2、工階段。正是在該組件的配置，材料規(guī)格和功能性能這些初步階段而決定的。施工過程中的質(zhì)量控制主要是確保其是否符合原先的設(shè)計和規(guī)劃決策。雖然符合現(xiàn)有的設(shè)計決策是質(zhì)量控制的首要重點，但也有例外的情況。第一，不可預(yù)見的情況下，錯誤的設(shè)計決策或希望通過在設(shè)備功能的所有者權(quán)益變動，可能在施工過程中要求對設(shè)計決策進行重新評估。雖然這些變化可能是出于關(guān)心質(zhì)量，但他們意味著隨之而來的所有目標和限制因素都要進行重新設(shè)計。至于第二種情況，一些明智且適當?shù)脑O(shè)計決策就是取決于施工過程本身，例如，一些隧道要求在不同的位置作出一定數(shù)量支護的方法，就是根據(jù)土壤條件，觀察在隧道里面的過程而做出的決策。由于這樣的決定是基于有關(guān)工地

3、的實際情況，因此該設(shè)施的設(shè)計可能會更符合成本效益的結(jié)果。任何特殊的情況下，重新設(shè)計的施工過程中都需要考慮各種因素。在施工過程中以講究一致性作為質(zhì)量的衡量標準，質(zhì)量要求的設(shè)計和合同文件中的說明將變得極為重要。質(zhì)量要求應(yīng)該是明確的、可驗證的，能使項目中的各方都能夠理解的一致性要求。本章的大部分討論均涉及到發(fā)展和建設(shè)的不同質(zhì)量要求，以及確保符合性的相關(guān)問題。建設(shè)項目中的安全性也在很大程度上影響到規(guī)劃設(shè)計過程中的決策。一些設(shè)計或施工計劃本身就是又危險又很難實現(xiàn)的，而其他類似的計劃，則可以大大降低事故發(fā)生的可能性。例如，從施工區(qū)域內(nèi)修復(fù)巷道使得交通分道行駛可以大大降低意外碰撞的可能性。除了這些設(shè)計決策，

4、在施工過程中安全在很大程度上取決于教育，提高警惕，合作。工人應(yīng)對可能發(fā)生意外保持時刻警惕，避免不必要的風險。2組織的質(zhì)量和安全在施工過程中，各種不同的組織均可對質(zhì)量和安全進行控制。一個常見的模式是由一個組負責質(zhì)量保證而另一個組則主要負責集團內(nèi)的安全組織。在大型的組織中，各部門致力于確保質(zhì)量和安全，可能會指定專人來承擔這些具體項目的責任。對于較小的項目，項目經(jīng)理或助理可能會承擔相應(yīng)責任。在任一情況下，確保安全和質(zhì)量建設(shè)是項目經(jīng)理在除人事、成本、時間和其他管理問題以外必須重點關(guān)注并全面負責的。檢查人員和質(zhì)量保證人員將代表各種不同的組織共同參與一個項目。跟項目直接相關(guān)的各方都可能有自己的質(zhì)量和安全檢

5、查，包括業(yè)主，工程師/設(shè)計師，和各種構(gòu)造公司。這些檢查員可以從專業(yè)的質(zhì)量保證機構(gòu)組織選擇擔任。除了現(xiàn)場檢查，材料樣品通常會由專門的實驗室測試，以確保其權(quán)威性。為了保證符合監(jiān)管要求，相關(guān)部門也將參與其中。常見的例子是當?shù)卣ㄔO(shè)部門的督察，環(huán)境機構(gòu)，和職業(yè)健康與安全機構(gòu)。美國職業(yè)安全與健康管理局（OSHA）與獲批準的國家檢驗機構(gòu)合作，定期對工作場所進行實地考察。OSHA的檢查人員必須依法對所有違背標準的行為進行采證。以保障安全標準規(guī)定的各種機械措施和程序; 例如，梯子的安全有超過140個法規(guī)。在極端不符合標準上面法規(guī)的情況下，安全檢查員可以停止在一個項目的工作。然而，只有一小部分的建筑工地是由O

6、SHA督察巡視的，大多數(shù)施工現(xiàn)場的事故并非由違反現(xiàn)有標準造成的。因此，安全問題在很大程度上應(yīng)由現(xiàn)場管理人員而非公共督察負責。而施工過程中的眾多參與者都需要檢查人員的服務(wù)，也不能過于強調(diào)檢查人員只檢查質(zhì)量控制的過程。好的質(zhì)量控制應(yīng)該是一個項目團隊所有成員的首要目標。管理者應(yīng)承擔維護和提高質(zhì)量控制的責任。員工參與質(zhì)量控制包括引入了新的思路都應(yīng)該被獎勵。最重要的是，質(zhì)量改進可以作為提高生產(chǎn)率的催化劑。良好的質(zhì)量控制可以通過提出新的工作方法，避免返工，并避免長期的問題，達到自給自足。業(yè)主應(yīng)促進良好的質(zhì)量控制，并尋求能保持這樣的水準的承包商。除了參與質(zhì)量控制的各種組織機構(gòu)，質(zhì)量控制問題在幾乎所有的建筑活

7、動功能區(qū)均出現(xiàn)過。例如，確保準確和有用的信息是保持質(zhì)量性能的重要組成部分。質(zhì)量控制的其他方面包括文件控制（包括在施工過程中的變更），采購，現(xiàn)場檢查和測試，以及設(shè)施的竣工驗收。3工作和材料規(guī)范工作質(zhì)量的規(guī)格是設(shè)備設(shè)計的一個重要特性。要求的質(zhì)量和部件的規(guī)格代表了必要的文件來描述一個設(shè)備的一部分。通常情況下，這個文件包含了施工期間使用的設(shè)備設(shè)計文件和公認的規(guī)范的任何特殊規(guī)定，作為參考。工作質(zhì)量一般規(guī)格在許多領(lǐng)域都是在如美國材料與試驗協(xié)會（ASTM），美國國家標準協(xié)會（ANSI），或施工規(guī)范協(xié)會（CSI）等組織的刊物上發(fā)表。不同規(guī)格的形式為特定類型的建設(shè)活動，如由美國焊接協(xié)會頒發(fā)的焊接標準，或特定設(shè)施

8、的類型，如由美國協(xié)會的國家公路和運輸官員頒發(fā)的公路橋梁的標準規(guī)范。這些一般規(guī)格必須進行修改，以反映當?shù)氐臈l件，政策，提供的材料，地方性法規(guī)及其他特殊情況。施工規(guī)范通常由一系列的具體操作指令或禁令組成。例如，下面的文章說明了一個典型的對在這種情況下的挖掘結(jié)構(gòu)的規(guī)范：符合標高和尺寸正負0.10英尺的容差范圍內(nèi)的計劃顯示，從地基和基礎(chǔ)延伸足夠的距離，允許放置及拆除混凝土模板，安裝服務(wù)，其他建筑，并進行檢查。在挖掘挖掘地基和基礎(chǔ)時，當心別影響基坑開挖。用手挖掘并最終分級來填置鋼筋混凝土。調(diào)整（挖掘的）最底層到需要的路線和坡度，留下堅實的基礎(chǔ)去填充堅實（的混凝土）。這一組規(guī)范要求應(yīng)用判斷，是由于有些項目

9、不能精確地指定。例如，開挖必須延長“足夠”的距離，以便進行檢查和其他活動。顯然，“足夠”這個詞，在這種情況下，可能會受到不同的解釋。相反，一個規(guī)范，公差內(nèi)加或減十分之一英尺則是直接測量。然而，由于網(wǎng)站的設(shè)施或特征的具體要求， 可能會使得十分之一英尺的標準公差變得不合適。書寫規(guī)范通常需要在假設(shè)有關(guān)各方在諸如“充足”與預(yù)指定所有操作的努力和可能的解釋不準確的話雙方的部分合理的行為之間的權(quán)衡。近年來，性能規(guī)格已經(jīng)被開發(fā)運用于許多施工作業(yè)。這些規(guī)范是指所要求的性能的成品設(shè)施或質(zhì)量，而不是指定所需的施工過程中的規(guī)范。而如何從其中獲得此性能的具體方法則是留給建筑承包商的。例如，傳統(tǒng)規(guī)格為瀝青路面中指定的瀝

10、青材料，瀝青組合物的攤鋪溫度，壓實過程。相反，一個性能規(guī)格瀝青所需的詳細性能是關(guān)于路面的抗?jié)B性及強度等。如何達到所期望的性能水平則要依靠鋪路承包商。質(zhì)量控制（）1全面的質(zhì)量控制在施工質(zhì)量控制一般包括投保符合材料和工藝上最低準則，以便根據(jù)設(shè)計，以確保設(shè)備的性能。這些最低標準都包含在上一節(jié)中描述的規(guī)范。對于符合保險的目的，隨機抽樣和統(tǒng)計方法通常用于為基礎(chǔ)，接受或拒絕工作完成，材料批次。一批拒絕是基于不符合或違反有關(guān)設(shè)計規(guī)范。這種質(zhì)量控制的實踐過程在下面的章節(jié)中描述。在這些傳統(tǒng)的質(zhì)量控制方法的一個隱含的假設(shè)是可以接受的質(zhì)量水平，這是不良品的允許分數(shù)的概念。由一個組織進行供應(yīng)商或工作組獲得的材料進行檢

11、查，如果估計有缺陷，但是所占百分比是在可接受的質(zhì)量水平，讓供應(yīng)商和工作組來判斷判斷是否通過驗收。如果是材料或貨物的問題則是在產(chǎn)品交付后校正。與此相反，質(zhì)量控制這種傳統(tǒng)的方法是全面質(zhì)量管理的目標。在這個系統(tǒng)中，施工過程中的任何地方都不允許有次品。而完美的目標卻是永遠無法達到的，它提供了一個目標，讓組織永遠不會滿足于它的質(zhì)量控制程序，使得缺陷在年復(fù)一年的大量減少。這個概念和質(zhì)量控制的方法最初是開發(fā)制造在日本和歐洲的公司，但已蔓延到許多建筑公司。最有名的質(zhì)量改進的正式認證是國際標準化組織ISO9000標準。ISO 9000強調(diào)良好的文檔，質(zhì)量目標和一系列的周期規(guī)劃，實施和審查。全面質(zhì)量管理是一個對質(zhì)

12、量的承諾，表現(xiàn)在組織的各個部分，通常涉及許多元素。設(shè)計審查是確保安全和有效的施工程序的一個主要元素。其他因素包括大量的人員培訓，轉(zhuǎn)移檢測產(chǎn)品缺陷的質(zhì)量控制員的責任，并不斷維護設(shè)備。在質(zhì)量圈中的工人小組定期開會，提出質(zhì)量改進的建議，但工人參與改進質(zhì)量控制往往是形式化的。材料供應(yīng)商也需要確保交付貨物的零缺陷。首先，從供應(yīng)商的所有材料進行檢查，有缺陷的商品被分批次退回。能證明自己信譽優(yōu)良的供應(yīng)商，則可以在之后完成檢查。質(zhì)量控制的傳統(tǒng)微觀經(jīng)濟學的觀點是有缺陷的項目的“最優(yōu)”的比例。努力實現(xiàn)比這更大的最佳的質(zhì)量會大幅增加檢驗成本，降低員工的工作效率。然而，許多公司都發(fā)現(xiàn)，致力于全面質(zhì)量控制可以產(chǎn)生可觀的

13、經(jīng)濟效益，這是一個曾經(jīng)一直不受重視的傳統(tǒng)方法。全面質(zhì)量控制使得返工，廢鋼和保證與庫存相關(guān)費用均減少，并且改善工作人員的積極性和工作決心?？蛻敉矚g更高質(zhì)量的作品，并會為其高質(zhì)量支付高價。其結(jié)果是，完善的質(zhì)量控制成為了一個競爭優(yōu)勢。當然，全面的質(zhì)量控制是很難應(yīng)用的，尤其是在建設(shè)中。各設(shè)施的獨特性，勞動力的變化性，眾多分包商，教育和程序進行必要的成本投資，使項目全面質(zhì)量控制的實施難度大。然而，一個組織雖不能保證達到完美的目標但卻一直致力于提高質(zhì)量，那么它可以是一個真正為大家造福的組織。附外文原文：Quality Control and Safety during Construction1 Qu

14、ality and Safety Concerns in ConstructionQuality control and safety represent increasingly important concerns for project managers. Defects or failures in constructed facilities can result in very large costs. Even with minor defects，re-construction may be required and facility operations impaired.

15、Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case, failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accidents during the construction process can similarly result in personal injuries and large costs. Indirect costs of insurance, inspection and regulation are increasing rapidly due to

16、these increased direct costs. Good project managers try to ensure that the job is done right the first time and that no major accidents occur on the project.As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of a completed facility are made during the design and planning stages

17、 rather than during construction. It is during these preliminary stages that component configurations, material specifications and functional performance are decided. Quality control during construction consists largely of insuring conformance to these original designs and planning decisions.While c

18、onformance to existing design decisions is the primary focus of quality control, there are exceptions to this rule. First, unforeseen circumstances, incorrect design decisions or changes desired by an owner in the facility function may require re-evaluation of design decisions during the course of c

19、onstruction. While these changes may be motivated by the concern for quality, they represent occasions for re-design with all the attendant objectives and constraints. As a second case, some designs rely upon informed and appropriate decision making during the construction process itself. For exampl

20、e, some tunneling methods make decisions about the amount of shoring required at different locations based upon observation of soil conditions during the tunneling process. Since such decisions are based on better information concerning actual site conditions, the facility design may be more cost ef

21、fective as a result. Any special case of re-design during construction requires the various considerations.With the attention to conformance as the measure of quality during the construction process, the specification of quality requirements in the design and contract documentation becomes extremely

22、 important. Quality requirements should be clear and verifiable, so that all parties in the project can understand the requirements for conformance. Much of the discussion in this chapter relates to the development and the implications of different quality requirements for construction as well as th

23、e issues associated with insuring conformance.Safety during the construction project is also influenced in large part by decisions made during the planning and design process. Some designs or construction plans are inherently difficult and dangerous to implement, whereas other, comparable plans may

24、considerably reduce the possibility of accidents. For example, clear separation of traffic from construction zones during roadway rehabilitation can greatly reduce the possibility of accidental collisions. Beyond these design decisions, safety largely depends upon education, vigilance and cooperatio

25、n during the construction process. Workers should be constantly alert to the possibilities of accidents and avoid taken unnecessary risks.2 Organizing for Quality and SafetyA variety of different organizations are possible for quality and safety control during construction. One common model is to ha

26、ve a group responsible for quality assurance and another group primarily responsible for safety within an organization. In large organizations, department dedicated to quality assurance and to safety might assign specific individuals to assume responsibility for these functions on particular project

27、s. For smaller projects, the project manager or an assistant might assume these and other responsibilities. In either case, insuring safe and quality construction is a concern of the project manager in overall charge of the project in addition to the concerns of personnel, cost, time and other manag

28、ement issues.Inspectors and quality assurance personnel will be involved in a project to represent a variety of different organizations. Each of the parties directly concerned with the project may have their own quality and safety inspectors, including the owner, the engineer/architect, and the vari

29、ous constructor firms. These inspectors may be contractors from specialized quality assurance organizations. In addition to on-site inspections, samples of materials will commonly be tested by specialized laboratories to insure compliance. Inspectors to insure compliance with regulatory requirements

30、 will also be involved. Common examples are inspectors for the local governments building department, for environmental agencies, and for occupational health and safety agencies.The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) routinely conduct site visits of work places in conjunction wi

31、th approved state inspection agencies. OSHA inspectors are required by law to issue citations for all standard violations observed. Safety standards prescribe a variety of mechanical safeguards and procedures; for example, ladder safety is covered by over 140 regulations. In cases of extreme non-com

32、pliance with standards, OSHA inspectors can stop work on a project. However, only a small fraction of construction sites are visited by OSHA inspectors and most construction site accidents are not caused by violations of existing standards. As a result, safety is largely the responsibility of the ma

33、nagers on site rather than that of public inspectors.While the multitude of participants involved in the construction process require the services of inspectors, it cannot be emphasized too strongly that inspectors are only a formal check on quality control. Quality control should be a primary objec

34、tive for all the members of a project team. Managers should take responsibility for maintaining and improving quality control. Employee participation in quality control should be sought and rewarded, including the introduction of new ideas. Most important of all, quality improvement can serve as a c

35、atalyst for improved productivity. By suggesting new work methods, by avoiding rework, and by avoiding long term problems, good quality control can pay for itself. Owners should promote good quality control and seek out contractors who maintain such standards.In addition to the various organizationa

36、l bodies involved in quality control, issues of quality control arise in virtually all the functional areas of construction activities. For example, insuring accurate and useful information is an important part of maintaining quality performance. Other aspects of quality control include document con

37、trol (including changes during the construction process), procurement, field inspection and testing, and final checkout of the facility.3 Work and Material SpecificationsSpecifications of work quality are an important feature of facility designs. Specifications of required quality and components rep

38、resent part of the necessary documentation to describe a facility. Typically, this documentation includes any special provisions of the facility design as well as references to generally accepted specifications to be used during construction.General specifications of work quality are available in nu

39、merous fields and are issued in publications of organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), or the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI).Distinct specifications are formalized for particular types of constructio

40、n activities, such as welding standards issued by the American Welding Society, or for particular facility types, such as the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges issued by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. These general specifications must be modified to

41、 reflect local conditions, policies, available materials, local regulations and other special circumstances.Construction specifications normally consist of a series of instructions or prohibitions for specific operations. For example, the following passage illustrates a typical specification, in thi

42、s case for excavation for structures:Conform to elevations and dimensions shown on plan within a tolerance of plus or minus 0.10 foot, and extending a sufficient distance from footings and foundations to permit placing and removal of concrete formwork, installation of services, other construction, a

43、nd for inspection. In excavating for footings and foundations, take care not to disturb bottom of excavation. Excavate by hand to final grade just before concrete reinforcement is placed. Trim bottoms to required lines and grades to leave solid base to receive concrete.This set of specifications req

44、uires judgment in application since some items are not precisely specified. For example, excavation must extend a sufficient distance to permit inspection and other activities. Obviously, the term sufficient in this case may be subject to varying interpretations. In contrast, a specification that to

45、lerances are within plus or minus a tenth of a foot is subject to direct measurement. However, specific requirements of the facility or characteristics of the site may make the standard tolerance of a tenth of a foot inappropriate. Writing specifications typically requires a trade-off between assumi

46、ng reasonable behavior on the part of all the parties concerned in interpreting words such as sufficient versus the effort and possible inaccuracy in pre-specifying all operations.In recent years, performance specifications have been developed for many construction operations. Rather than specifying

47、 the required construction process, these specifications refer to the required performance or quality of the finished facility. The exact method by which this performance is obtained is left to the construction contractor. For example, traditional specifications for asphalt pavement specified the co

48、mposition of the asphalt material, the asphalt temperature during paving, and compacting procedures. In contrast, a performance specification for asphalt would detail the desired performance of the pavement with respect to impermeability, strength, etc. How the desired performance level was attained

49、 would be up to the paving contractor. In some cases, the payment for asphalt paving might increase with better quality of asphalt beyond some minimum level of performance.Quality Control ()1 Total Quality ControlQuality control in construction typically involves insuring compliance with minimum sta

50、ndards of material and workmanship in order to insure the performance of the facility according to the design. These minimum standards are contained in the specifications described in the previous section. For the purpose of insuring compliance, random samples and statistical methods are commonly us

51、ed as the basis for accepting or rejecting work completed and batches of materials. Rejection of a batch is based on non-conformance or violation of the relevant design specifications. Procedures for this quality control practice are described in the following sections.An implicit assumption in thes

52、e traditional quality control practices is the notion of an acceptable quality level which is an allowable fraction of defective items. Materials obtained from suppliers or work performed by an organization is inspected and passed as acceptable if the estimated defective percentage is within the acc

53、eptable quality level. Problems with materials or goods are corrected after delivery of the product.In contrast to this traditional approach of quality control is the goal of total quality control. In this system, no defective items are allowed anywhere in the construction process. While the zero de

54、fects goal can never be permanently obtained, it provides a goal so that an organization is never satisfied with its quality control program even if defects are reduced by substantial amounts year after year. This concept and approach to quality control was first developed in manufacturing firms in

55、Japan and Europe, but has since spread to many construction companies. The best known formal certification for quality improvement is the International Organization for Standardizations ISO 9000 standard. ISO 9000 emphasizes good documentation, quality goals and a series of cycles of planning, implementation and review.Total quality control is a commitment to quality expressed in all parts of an organization and typically involves many elements. Design reviews to insure safe and effective