1、1,Treaties and other sources of IL impose so many restrictions on use of force that it is generally illegal 國(guó)際法條約和其他法律淵源對(duì)於使用武力設(shè)立了很多限制, 在一般情況下使用武力是不合法的 Most armed conflicts are now civil and not international wars 大部分武裝衝突是國(guó)內(nèi)而不是國(guó)際戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng),The Use of Force 武力運(yùn)用,2,St. Augustine (4th C.) set out doctrine of ju

2、st wars聖奧斯丁四世紀(jì)主張正義戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)論1. Just war waged against party that has caused injury and refuses to make amends正義戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)反擊造成了傷害和拒絕改正的一方2. Just war is to only be punitive; when wrong is righted, war must end正義戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)只是懲罰性的，當(dāng)錯(cuò)誤得到糾正，戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)必須停止St. Thomas Acquinas (13th C.) held that is wrongdoer, not wrongdoing that is to pun

3、ished托馬斯阿奎那十三世紀(jì)認(rèn)為受到懲罰的應(yīng)該是錯(cuò)者而不是錯(cuò)行本身,3,War could go on after wrong is righted, until wrongdoer repents戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)可在錯(cuò)誤糾正之後繼續(xù)，直至錯(cuò)者悔改Just war is waged by sovereign, punishes the wrongdoer and is motivated by good intentions正義戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)由主權(quán)出於善意而發(fā)動(dòng)，用於懲罰錯(cuò)者 In Renaissance, thinkers urged that negotiations precede resort to fo

4、rce在文藝復(fù)興時(shí)期，思想家要求訴諸武力之前要進(jìn)行談判Vitoria argued that not every wrong is sufficient cause for war維多利亞認(rèn)為並不是每個(gè)錯(cuò)誤都是發(fā)動(dòng)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的充分原因,4,Suarez held that wronged state must first demand reparatationsSuarez說受犯國(guó)必須首先要求賠償Innocent parties should be immune from attack無辜者應(yīng)該免受攻擊Only proportionate force should be used只可酌量使用武力,5

5、,Grotius said just wars involve格老秀斯說正義戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)包括1. self-defense自衛(wèi)2. protection of property財(cái)產(chǎn)保護(hù)3.punishment for those who have harmed other states citizens懲罰那些傷害其他國(guó)家公民的人Neutrality to be determined not by states morality, but by whether there was actual state of war中立不是決定於國(guó)家的德性，而是是否真正存在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)狀態(tài),6,Later, states

6、adopted some other means to show displeasure, e.g.後來，國(guó)家採(cǎi)納了一些其他方法來表示不快 例如1. suspension of diplomatic relations外交關(guān)係的中止2. withdrawal from treaty撤銷條約3. cancellation of membership in international organization取消國(guó)際組織的成員身份4. economic boycott經(jīng)濟(jì)制裁,7,After World War I, disputes were supposed to be submitted t

7、o arbitration, judicial settlement or inquiry by League第一次世界大戰(zhàn)後，認(rèn)為爭(zhēng)議應(yīng)當(dāng)通過仲裁、 司法或國(guó)際聯(lián)盟調(diào)查等途徑來處理States were supposed to refrain from war for three months after arbitration, settlement or report 國(guó)家在仲裁、司法或調(diào)查報(bào)告之後三個(gè)月內(nèi)應(yīng)當(dāng)克制戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)1928 General Treaty for the Renunciation of War (Kellogg-Briand Pact)1928年非戰(zhàn)公約(白裏安-凱洛哥

8、公約),8,Article 2(4) of United Nations Charter: states are to refrain from threat or use of force against territorial integrity or independence of other states聯(lián)合國(guó)憲章第2條第4項(xiàng)規(guī)定：國(guó)家不應(yīng)當(dāng)運(yùn)用武力或以武力相威脅，破壞其它國(guó)家的領(lǐng)土完整或獨(dú)立Still many question of when force can be legally used武力何時(shí)可以合法地使用存在很多爭(zhēng)議For example, is “economic fo

9、rce” lawful?舉例，經(jīng)濟(jì)武力是否合法What is force used against territorial integrity, etc.?什麼是破壞領(lǐng)土完整的武力等,9,There are some lawful uses of force有一些合法的武力運(yùn)用Retortion: retaliation for a noxious act by a noxious act, for example反報(bào)：例如以惡治惡1. severing of diplomatic relationsas retaliation終止外交關(guān)係以作報(bào)復(fù)2. restrictions on move

10、ments with State A of citizens of State B限制國(guó)家乙國(guó)民在國(guó)家甲的活動(dòng)3.suspension of foreign aid as retaliation for nationalizations停止外國(guó)援助以報(bào)復(fù)國(guó)有化,10,4.non-economic boycotts, e.g. Olympic boycotts of 1980, 1984 非經(jīng)濟(jì)制裁，例如1980年和1984年的奧林匹克聯(lián)合抵制5. trade restrictions by A, following trade restrictions by B國(guó)家甲的貿(mào)易限制引發(fā)國(guó)家乙的貿(mào)易

11、限制Reprisal: normally illegal act of State B, when done in retaliation for illegal act of State A, becomes legal報(bào)復(fù)：一般來說，國(guó)家乙以不法行為回應(yīng)國(guó)家甲的不法行為，便會(huì)視為合法,11,Olympic boycotts,12,Retorsion involves normally legal acts; reprisal involves normally illegal acts通常説來，反報(bào)涉及到合法行為；報(bào)復(fù)涉及到不法行為Reprisal, unlike war, is limi

12、ted interference by one state with rights of another state不同于戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，報(bào)復(fù)是一個(gè)國(guó)家有權(quán)對(duì)另一國(guó)家進(jìn)行有限干預(yù)。In Nalilaa Incident Arbitration (1928), German forces in Africa raided Portugese colony of Angola in retaliation for mistaken killing of Germans there. Portugal demanded compensation.在Nalilaa事件仲裁案中(1928)，為報(bào)復(fù)德人被誤殺，德國(guó)

13、在非洲的軍隊(duì)侵略在安高拉的葡國(guó)殖民地。葡國(guó)要求賠償,13,Tribunal held that before reprisal法庭認(rèn)為報(bào)復(fù)前1. must be previous unlawful act 必須發(fā)生了不法行為2. must be unsatisfied demand for compensation必須是不滿意賠償3. reprisal must be carried out in proportion to offence.報(bào)復(fù)必須與受侵犯比例相符Under Article 2(4) of UN Charter, reprisals with force law only i

14、f carried out as self-defense根據(jù)聯(lián)合國(guó)憲章第2條第4項(xiàng)，有效武力報(bào)仇只可以在自衛(wèi)的情況下運(yùn)用,14,Some scholars say reprisal only lawful if motivated by desire to end unlawful conduct of other state一些學(xué)者說報(bào)復(fù)只有以終止其他國(guó)家的不法行動(dòng)為動(dòng)機(jī)才算是合法Reprisals now often carried out through economic means: embargos, boycotts, freezing of assets, export-imp

15、ort controls.現(xiàn)在報(bào)復(fù)經(jīng)常是透過經(jīng)濟(jì)途徑：禁運(yùn)、抵制購(gòu)買、 凍結(jié)財(cái)產(chǎn)、出入口管制Pacific blockade to coerce state對(duì)專制國(guó)家進(jìn)行和平封鎖,15,Pacific blockade can be undertaken only against ships of blockaded state; can be specific (Cuba) or general (Iraq)和平封鎖只可用來對(duì)待被封鎖國(guó)的船隻； 可以是特定的古巴或一般的伊拉克Self-defense available where unlawful act committed by othe

16、r side or (maybe) where lawful act of State B would ruin State A自衛(wèi)發(fā)生於當(dāng)另一方做了不法行動(dòng)或（也許）國(guó)家乙的合法行為將會(huì)損害國(guó)家甲的時(shí)候Difference between self-defense and retorsion and reprisal:自衛(wèi)和反報(bào)與報(bào)復(fù)的分別在於,16,Retorsion and reprisal can involve act not directly related to act of offending state反報(bào)與報(bào)復(fù)可涉及與侵犯國(guó)行為無直接關(guān)係的行為Self defense ai

17、ms directly against interference of another state自衛(wèi)是針對(duì)另一國(guó)家的直接干擾Caroline incident (1837) set ruleCaroline事件(1837)設(shè)立了規(guī)則British forces enter US and destroy ship after it is used by Americans to raid Canada軍艦被美國(guó)人用來襲擊加拿大之後，英國(guó)軍隊(duì)進(jìn)入美國(guó)將其擊毀,17,US complained. Said美國(guó)投訴說1. right of self-defense must be in respon

18、se to act that is immediate and overwhelming, leaving no other choice自衛(wèi)必須用於回應(yīng)迅速而毀滅性的行為，此外別無選擇2. action in self-defense must not be excessive自衛(wèi)的行動(dòng)不可過份Article 51 of UN Charter allows self-defense if armed attack occurs聯(lián)合國(guó)憲章第51條容許在面對(duì)武裝攻擊時(shí)自衛(wèi),18,Still unclear, however:但是依然含糊不清：1. what kind of actions all

19、ow for self-defense哪些類型的行動(dòng)容許自衛(wèi)？2. what kind of rights states can defend國(guó)家可以捍衛(wèi)哪些權(quán)利？3. how much force is proportional多少武力才是合乎比例？4. time of defense in retaliation報(bào)復(fù)中自衛(wèi)的時(shí)間,19,Question of pre-emptive self-defense especially difficult先發(fā)制人的自衛(wèi)問題更難界定In Nicaragua Case (ICJ 1986) took up this question of wheth

20、er State A can launch war in anticipation of aggression by State B在尼加拉瓜案國(guó)際法院1986年中，提出了這樣的問題，即國(guó)家甲可否因預(yù)計(jì)將受到國(guó)家乙侵略而發(fā)動(dòng)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)US had mined Nicaraguas harbors supposedly to prevent Nicaragua from supplying El Salvador rebels美國(guó)損毀尼加拉瓜的港口, 以防尼加拉瓜支持薩爾瓦多的叛亂者,20,Nicaragua Harbor,21,Court held: not pre-emptive self-def

21、ense because no imminent threat of attack on El Salvador, let alone on US法庭認(rèn)為：這並非先發(fā)制人的自衛(wèi)，因?yàn)樗_爾瓦多並沒有即將受到叛亂者的攻擊威脅，美國(guó)更加沒有受到威脅Question of whether state may use force to protect nationals and property abroad究竟國(guó)家可否使用武力保護(hù)海外國(guó)民和財(cái)產(chǎn),22,Before World War II, 第二次世界大戰(zhàn)前1. war was a conflict between two or more state

22、s using armies戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)是兩國(guó)或多國(guó)之間使用軍隊(duì)的衝突2. war had as its purpose, one side vanquishing the other and imposing terms of peace.如同其目標(biāo)，戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中一方摧毀了另一方並強(qiáng)加和平條款3. war was what followed a declaration of war戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)發(fā)生在宣戰(zhàn)以後Since World War II, however, no declarations of war自第二次大戰(zhàn)，便再?zèng)]有宣戰(zhàn)了,23,Question whether war is an action or

23、 a status問題是究竟戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)是一個(gè)行動(dòng)或是一種狀態(tài)As an action, war ends when states no longer fight如果是一個(gè)行動(dòng)，戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)在國(guó)家不再戰(zhàn)鬥時(shí)結(jié)束Kawaski case (UK 1938) considered word “war” in shipping contractKawaski案1938考慮了船約中的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng) Held: UK ship did not have to carry cargo to China after Japanese invasion, even though Japan didnt declare war判決認(rèn)為：

24、英國(guó)船隻在日本侵華後不須再運(yùn)貨到中國(guó)，即使日本沒有宣戰(zhàn),24,If war is an action, then its existence depends on:如果戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)是一個(gè)行動(dòng)，它的存在視乎：1. dimensions of conflict爭(zhēng)執(zhí)的層面2. intention of contestants參戰(zhàn)者的目的3. attitude of non-contestants非參戰(zhàn)者的態(tài)度War as status shown by continued state of war between Japan and Russia日俄之間持續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)表明了戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)是一種狀態(tài),25,Question

25、 if war must involve force問題是戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)是否必須使用武力Half of countries that declared war during WWII never fought一半在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)中宣戰(zhàn)的國(guó)家從來沒有參與戰(zhàn)鬥Study armed conflict, not war now現(xiàn)在研究的是武裝衝突，而不是戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)Formerly, colonial powers could use force to crush independence struggles; now states cannot早前，殖民勢(shì)力可使用武力粉碎爭(zhēng)取獨(dú)立的抗?fàn)?；現(xiàn)在的國(guó)家不可以,26,Bu

26、t can people seeking self-determination lawfully use force?但人們可否合法使用武力尋求自決Under 1977 Additional Protocol, Geneva Convention of 1949, protecting prisoners of war and civilians in wartime applies to some self-determination armed struggles根據(jù)1949年日內(nèi)瓦公約的附加議定書 (1977年)，保護(hù)戰(zhàn)時(shí)的戰(zhàn)犯和平民適用於一些尋求自決的武裝抗?fàn)嶲uestion whet

27、her 3d party can help people fighting for self-determination問題是第三者可否幫助人們爭(zhēng)取自決,27,Some UN resolutions have said so; some scholars argue that aid can only be provided to established government against rebels 一些聯(lián)合國(guó)決議允許這樣；有些學(xué)者認(rèn)為援助只應(yīng)提供給現(xiàn)存政府用以鎮(zhèn)壓叛亂Under Geneva Convention of 1949, enemy national can usually

28、leave territory of a state at war根據(jù)1949年日內(nèi)瓦公約 ，敵國(guó)國(guó)民通常可以離開處于戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的國(guó)家Only can intern enemy nationals只可拘留敵國(guó)公民During war, aliens are enemies on basis of nationality, not residence在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)時(shí)期，敵人是依國(guó)藉而非居留地定義的外國(guó)人,28,But, as to corporations, may have enemy character if those who control it reside in enemy country但是，就

29、團(tuán)體來說，便因其領(lǐng)導(dǎo)人居住於敵國(guó)可能具有敵人特征State may, within its territory, confiscate movable property of government of enemy state 國(guó)家可能在其領(lǐng)土內(nèi)沒收敵國(guó)政府的動(dòng)產(chǎn)Immovable state property can be used, but not confiscated敵國(guó)的不動(dòng)產(chǎn)可被使用，但不可被沒收Private property in occupied territory may be sequestered, but not confiscated.私產(chǎn)在被佔(zhàn)據(jù)國(guó)家的領(lǐng)土內(nèi)可被扣

30、押，但不是被沒收,29,Must only be taken for military use必只可用作軍事用途W(wǎng)hen armed conflict starts, some treaties between warring states nulled; some are suspended; some remain in force 當(dāng)武裝衝突開始，一些戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)國(guó)之間的條約會(huì)無效、一些會(huì)被暫緩、一些則仍有效subjective test of intention of parties toward treaties during war在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)時(shí)，對(duì)締約國(guó)條約意向的主觀性測(cè)試,30,object

31、ive test: compatibility of treaty with wartime客觀測(cè)試：條約和戰(zhàn)時(shí)的兼容性1. treaties of alliance abrogated聯(lián)盟條約的終止2. treaties fixing boundaries or on conduct of war remaining in force劃定邊界或戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)操守的條約仍然生效3. treaties on health, drugs, industrial property, extradition, etc. are suspended有關(guān)健康、藥品、工業(yè)資產(chǎn)和引渡等的條約被中止,31,Two kin

32、ds of combatants兩種的戰(zhàn)鬥者1. Lawful - may be killed, wounded, captured.合法的可能被殺、被傷、被俘獲Spies can be shot間諜可能被槍殺2. Unlawful - e.g. murderers, traitors and mercenaries may be punished by military tribunal不合法的例如謀殺者、叛徒和外國(guó)僱傭兵可能被軍事法院懲罰Merchant seamen can be attacked; civilians working in military factories can

33、be bombed商人海員可能被襲擊；在軍工廠工作的平民可能被轟炸,32,Hague Convention of 1907 held that only military objectives can be bombed 1907年海牙公約認(rèn)為只有軍事目標(biāo)才可以被轟炸Also banned using poisons in war同時(shí)亦禁止在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中使用毒藥Geneva Convention of 1949 called for hospital, safety and netural zones for sick, aged, children, wounded, civilians gene

34、rally 1949年日內(nèi)瓦公約要求設(shè)立醫(yī)院、安全的中立區(qū)給病人、老人、兒童、傷者和一般百姓Many anti-nuclear weapons treaties, multilateral and bi-lateral 有很多反核武器條約，包括多邊的和雙邊的,33,Humanitarian law binding on individuals, including civilian leaders人道主義法律對(duì)包括平民領(lǐng)袖在內(nèi)的個(gè)人都有約束力International Law Commission has Draft Code of Offences Against Peace and Sec

35、urity of Mankind (1954)國(guó)際法委員會(huì)制定了危害人類和平及安全治罪法草案 （1954年）UN treaty calls for no statute of limitations on war crimes charges聯(lián)合國(guó)條約要求對(duì)戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)罪行控訴沒有限制法規(guī)Order of superiors or obedience to national law no defense to war crimes charges, if moral choice was possible如果可能存在道德選擇，上級(jí)的命令或?qū)?guó)內(nèi)法的服從都不能成為免受戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)罪行指控的理由,34,Yamas

36、hita Case - failure to control subordinates equivalent to consent to their war crimesYamashita案未能成功控制下屬等于默許他們的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)罪行Under Hague Convention, if state violates laws of war, it must pay compensation根據(jù)海牙公約，如果國(guó)家違反戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)法律，它必須要作出賠償 treat rebels as criminals將背叛者作為罪犯 But if rebels treated as insurgents, have prot

37、ection of humanitarian law但是如果背叛者被待作造反者，便會(huì)有人道主義法律作保護(hù),35,Hostages may still be taken in war在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中可能有人質(zhì)Under Geneva Convention, humanitarian law applied to armed resistance groups, militias and other irregulars if they are根據(jù)日內(nèi)瓦公約，人道主義法律適用於武裝反抗組織、國(guó)民自衛(wèi)隊(duì)和其他非正規(guī)軍，如果他們1. commanded by responsible person由富責(zé)任感的人

38、負(fù)責(zé)指揮2. have fixed sign有既定標(biāo)符3. carry arms openly公開攜帶武器4. fight according to laws of war依戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)法而作戰(zhàn),36,Under 1977 Protocol, humanitarian law applied to armed forces in organized units under effective command that apply laws of war根據(jù)1977年議定書，人道主義法律適用於採(cǎi)用戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)法、受有效指揮的、有組織的武裝部隊(duì)Combatants must distinguish their d

39、ress from civilians during military operations or at least openly carry arms during battle戰(zhàn)士在軍事行動(dòng)中必須在衣飾上與平民相區(qū)別出來或最少在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)時(shí)明顯地佩帶武器POWs protected from violence, intimidation, insults and public curiosityPOWs受保護(hù)以免於暴力、恐嚇、誨辱和公眾好奇,37,POWs need only tell name, rank, serial numberPOWs祗需識(shí)別姓名、級(jí)別、編號(hào)Cultural objects and places of worship protected under Hague Convent