1、A Course on Linguistics戴煒棟新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程（網(wǎng)絡(luò)下載，調(diào)整修改中）,The Goals for this Course,To get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on linguistics; To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching To prepare for the future resea

2、rch work.,The Requirements for this course,Class attendance Classroom discussion Fulfillment of the assignment Examination,Reference Books,戴煒棟，何兆熊，(2002)，新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程，上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社。 胡壯麟，(2001)，語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程，北京大學(xué)出版社。 劉潤(rùn)清，(1995)，西方語(yǔ)言學(xué)流派，外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社。 Fromkin,V. cant be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.,Lan

3、guage is arbitrary,Arbitrary- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.,Language is symbolic in nature,Symbolic- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would sm

4、ell as sweet”-Shakespeare,Language is primarily vocal,Vocal- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.,Language is human-specific,Human-specific- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, an

5、imal cries.,The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett),Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission,Arbitrariness,-No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) a

6、re somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, . Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy,Productivity/creativity,-Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sen

7、tences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world. A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly e

8、xhausted, making any novelty impossible. The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, l

9、et alone about people, animals, hopes or desires,Duality (double articulation),Lower level-sounds (meaningless) Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning) A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A smal

10、l number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.,Displacemen

11、t,-Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees abo

12、ut the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about

13、the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.,Cultural transmission,-Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are a

14、lmost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. The stor

15、y of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.,Functions of language,Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact. Directive: get the hearer to do something. Informative: give information about facts. Interr

16、ogative: get information from others. Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.,The origin of language,The divine-origin theory

17、- Language is a gift of God to mankind. The invention theory- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together. The evolutionary theory- the result of physical and psychological development.,許國(guó)璋先生認(rèn)為把語(yǔ)言定義成交際工具不夠科學(xué),至少不夠嚴(yán)謹(jǐn).他對(duì)語(yǔ)言的定義做了如下概括:語(yǔ)言是一種符號(hào)系統(tǒng).,當(dāng)它作用于人與人之間的關(guān)系的時(shí)候,它是表達(dá)相互反應(yīng)的中介; 當(dāng)它作用于人與客觀世界

18、的關(guān)系的時(shí)候,它是認(rèn)知事物的工具; 當(dāng)它作用于文化的時(shí)候,它是文化的載體.,2. What is linguistics?,-Linguistics is the scientific study of language. -A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.,Four principles of linguistic studies,Exhaustiveness/adequacy Consistency Economy Objectivity,The scope or major branches of lingu

19、istics,Theoretical linguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Use of linguistics Applied linguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics ,Theoretical linguistics,Phonetics-speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory

20、phonetics. Phonology-sound patterns of languages Morphology-the form of words Syntax-the rules governing the combination of words into sentence. Semantics-the meaning of language (when the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use-Pragmatics),Use of linguistics,Applied linguist

21、ics-linguistics and language teaching Sociolinguistics- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use Psycholinguistics-linguistic behavior and psychological process Stylistics-linguistic and literature,Some other applications,Anthropological linguistics Neurolinguistics Computational l

22、inguistics (e.g. machine translation),Some important distinctions in linguistics,Descriptive vs prescriptive,Descriptive - describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive -lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (

23、traditional grammar),Synchronic vs diachronic,Synchronic study- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time),Speech vs writing,Speech - primary medium of langua

24、ge Writing - later developed,Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure),Langue - the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole - the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conven

25、tions.,Competence and performance (Chomsky),Competence - the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language Performance - the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the m

26、ind of each individual.,Traditional grammar vs modern linguistics,Traditional grammar - prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics - descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework,Chapter 2 Phonology,Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language i

27、s sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds-sounds that convey meaning in human communication.,Phonetics,-A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. p bila

28、bial, stop.,Three branches of phonetics,Articulatory phonetics-from the speakers point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds” Auditory phonetics-from the hearers point of view, “how sounds are perceived” Acoustic phonetics-from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from on

29、e to another.,Articulatory phonetics,Speech organs: three important areas,Pharyngeal cavity - the throat; The oral cavity - the mouth; Nasal cavity - the nose.,The diagram of speech organs,Lips Teeth Teeth ridge (alveolar) Hard palate Soft palate (velum) Uvula Tip of tongue Blade of tongue Back of t

30、ongue Vocal cords Pharyngeal cavity Nasal cavity,Orthographic representation of speech sounds,- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.

31、 Broad transcription - used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear l , pit Narrow transcription - used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark l , aspirated p ,Some major articulatory variables,- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:

32、 Voicing- voiced fricatives: f, v, s, z, W, T, F, V, h; affricates: tF, dV; liquids: l(lateral), r; nasals: m, n, N; glides/semivowels: w, j.,The place of articulation,bilabial: p, b, m, w; labiodental: f , v; dental: W, T; alveolar: t, d, s, z, n, l, r; palatal: F, V, tF, dV, j ; velar: k, g, N; gl

33、ottal: h.,The place of articulation,Bilabial; Labiodental; Dental or interdental; Alveolar; Palatoalveolar; Palatal; Velar; Uvular; Glottal.,The description of English consonants,Classification of vowels,- English vowels can be divided into two large categories: Monophthongs or pure/single vowels Di

34、phthongs or gliding vowels,Monophthongs or pure/single vowels,-According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front vowels: I:, I, e, Z, A, B; central vowels: E:, E, Q; back vowels: u:, u, C:, C, B:.,According to the openness o

35、f the mouth,Close: I:, I, u:, u. Semi-close: e, E:; Semi-open: E, C; Open: A, B, C, B:, Q;,The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:,According to the shape of the lips orthe degree of lip rounding,rounded: u:, u, C:, C; unrounded: I:, I, e, Z, A, B, E:

36、, E, Q, B:.,According to the length of the vowels,long: I:, E:, u:, C:, B: short: I, e, Z, A, E, Q, B, u, C.,Diphthongs/gliding vowels,ei, ai, aU, EU, Ri, iE, ZE, UE.,Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.,A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had lad A velar consona

37、nt: nod god cod pod rod Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat pat An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quick A palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zip A dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie rye A glide: one war yolk rush,Underline the words that end with a sound

38、as required:,A fricative pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave message A nasal train bang leaf limb A stop drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tip An affricate: rack such ridge booze,Underline the words that contain the sound as required:,A central vowel: mad lot but bo

39、ot word A front vowel: reed pad load fate bit bed cook A rounded vowel: who he bus her hit true boss bar walk A back vowel: paid reap fool top good father,Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:,vd/vl place manner Letter Brother Sunny Hopper Itching Lodger Calling Singing R

40、obber either,Phonology,Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.,Phonetics it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, h

41、ow they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.,Phone, phoneme, allophone,Phone,A phone- a phonetic

42、 unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some dont, e.g. bI:t it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone i

43、n certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in pIt, tIp and spIt.,Allophone,Allophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.,Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.,Phonemic contrast,Phonemic contrast

44、-different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. /b/ and /p/ in bIt and pIt.,Complementary distribution,Complementary distribution-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark

45、l but the g sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.,Suprasegmental features,Suprasegmental features-the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme): stress tone intonation,Syllable (what is syllable?),Ancient Gree

46、k: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant. Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel. The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. mAn. The peak is the essential par

47、t. It is usually formed by a vowel. But l, n and m might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”.,Stress,Word stress Sentence stress,Word stress,The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: verb:

48、im5port; in5crease; re5bel; re5cord noun: 5import; 5increase; 5rebel; 5record ,Word stress,Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: compound: 5blackbird; 5greenhouse; 5hotdog noun phrase: black 5bird; green 5house; hot 5dog,Word s

49、tress,The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: modifier: 5dining-room; 5readingroom; 5sleepingbag doer: sleeping 5baby; swimming 5fish; flying 5plane,Sentence stress,Sentence stress-the relative force given to the components o

50、f a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g.

51、we may stress any part in the following sentences. He is driving my car. My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.,Tone,Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. ma 媽 (level) ma 麻 (the second r

52、ise) ma 馬 (the third rise) ma 罵 (the fourth fall),Intonation,When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact stateme

53、nt) rising tone (doubts or question) the fall-rise tone (implied message) For instance, “Thats not the book he wants.”,Grammatical functions of intonations,-Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English. a) It may indicate different sentenc

54、e types by pitch direction.,Grammatical functions of intonations,b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. “John didnt come because of Marry” Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry. With tw

55、o intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didnt come. Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations: “Those who bought quickly made a profit.”,Grammatical functions of intonations,c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it

56、, e.g. Jack came yesterday by train.,Grammatical functions of intonations,d) Its attitudinal functions. Falling tone - matter-of-fact statement, downright assertion, commands. Rising tone -politeness, encouragement, pleading. Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal

57、 meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.,Chapter 3 Morphology,Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.,Open class word and closed class word,Open class words-content words of a language to which we can r

58、egularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，時(shí)裝秀” in Chinese. Closed class words-grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.,Morpheme-the minimal unit of

59、 meaning,-Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. 1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism,Affix,Pr