1、Lecture 6 Exposition and Argumentation,Concept and Basic Structure,Commonly Used Sentence Patterns,Exposition in CET6,Exposition in CET6,08年12月How to improve Students Mental Health 1. 大學(xué)生心理健康很重要 2. 為此，學(xué)?？梢?3. 我們自己應(yīng)該 07年12月The Digital Age 1. 如今數(shù)字化產(chǎn)品越來越多，如 2. 使用數(shù)字化產(chǎn)品對(duì)人們學(xué)習(xí)工作和生活的影響 05年6月On Piracy 1. 目前盜

2、版現(xiàn)象比較嚴(yán)重 2. 造成這種現(xiàn)象的原因及危害 3. 我們應(yīng)該怎樣做 03.12月Reduce Waste on Campus1. 目前有些校園內(nèi)浪費(fèi)現(xiàn)象嚴(yán)重2. 浪費(fèi)的危害3. 從我做起，杜絕浪費(fèi) 2003.1 It Pays to Be Honest1. 最近社會(huì)上出現(xiàn)了一些不誠實(shí)的現(xiàn)象。2誠實(shí)利人利己；怎樣做到誠實(shí)。 2002.6 Student Use of Computers 1. 下圖所是為1990、1995、2000年某高校大學(xué)生使用計(jì)算機(jī)的情況，請(qǐng)描述其變化；2. 請(qǐng)說明發(fā)生這些變化的原因； 3. 你認(rèn)為目前大學(xué)生在計(jì)算機(jī)使用中有什么困難或問題。 1998.1 My View

3、on Fake Commodities1. 假冒偽劣商品的危害2. 怎樣杜絕假冒偽劣商品,Concept and Basic Structure,說明文的概念 說明文是用來解釋、闡述事物的文章。說明的對(duì)象可以是某一客觀事物的特點(diǎn)、性質(zhì)、操作程序、工作原理等，也可以是某種抽象概念或科學(xué)原理、自然現(xiàn)象或社會(huì)現(xiàn)象。有時(shí)甚至是某種觀點(diǎn)。因此，說明文是學(xué)生科學(xué)家或其他專業(yè)人員經(jīng)常使用的文體。 由于說明文往往是對(duì)客觀事物或事理的介紹或解釋，一般是不隨時(shí)間和空間變化而改變的。因此，英語說明文的基本時(shí)態(tài)還是一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。,說明文的特點(diǎn) 客觀性：說明的目的是介紹事物、闡明事理，所以，作者的態(tài)度必須冷靜、客觀、盡可

4、能不含自己的主觀感情色彩。說明文通常沒有個(gè)人的評(píng)論，因此常常采用被動(dòng)語態(tài)。 信息性：所有說明的內(nèi)容不僅要給讀者提供足夠的信息還必須客觀真實(shí)。 解說性:說明文要求對(duì)事物的性質(zhì)、形狀、特征等進(jìn)行直接解說，因而寫作要深入淺出、條理分明、通暢易懂。,說明文的標(biāo)題 說明文通常用來解釋“某一概念”、“和的關(guān)系”、“什么是”、“如何解決的問題”或“如何做”、“為什么”或“的原因”等。所以，常用以下幾種形式的標(biāo)題： 1）名詞或名詞短語：這種標(biāo)題中的名詞或名詞短語就是要說明的對(duì)象。例如：The Two-day Weekend, Plastics, Bicycle An Important Means of Tr

5、ansportation in China, Advantage of Job Interview等。 2）并列結(jié)構(gòu)：這類標(biāo)題通常用and連接兩個(gè)名詞，文章的核心部分常常是兩個(gè)概念的比較、相互關(guān)系或相互影響。例如：The Computer and Our Life, The Bus and the Subway Train, Motorcycles and City Traffic等。 3）非謂語動(dòng)詞：這類標(biāo)題的說明文主要側(cè)重如何做某事。例如：How to Succeed in a Job Interview, Getting to Know the World Outside the Cam

6、pus等。 4）句子：用作說明文標(biāo)題的句子可以是疑問句也可以是陳述句，有時(shí)還用祈使句。例如：How I Finance My College Education? What Would Happen If There Were No Power, The World Is Getting Smaller and Smaller等。,說明文的寫作方法 說明文通常分為三部分：第一部分點(diǎn)名要說明的事物；第二部分則使用例證、定義、分類、比較、因果關(guān)系等方法對(duì)事物進(jìn)行說明，是說明文的核心部分；最后，通常用一句話或一段文字簡短總結(jié)要點(diǎn)，例如： Automobiles have been playing a

7、n important role in the daily activities of human society. For example, industry needs them for transporting products, while agriculture depends on them for farm supplies. In addition, automobiles are used everyday to carry people to and from work. At weekends, automobiles can take families on tours

8、. Life without cars? It is unthinkable.,1）例證說明 通過舉例使抽象的特征具體化是最簡單、最常用、也是非常有效的說明手法。例證通常有兩種表現(xiàn)形式：舉例例證和細(xì)節(jié)說明。 舉例例證有時(shí)不使用任何明顯的例證標(biāo)志性詞語，直接敘述事例，但更多的情況下，要借用一些舉例標(biāo)志來實(shí)現(xiàn)，如such as, for example, for instance, take the case of, a case in point等。細(xì)節(jié)說明則是通過細(xì)節(jié)描繪或數(shù)據(jù)來說明一個(gè)道理或一般事實(shí)。 Americans call it doing homework. Parents and

9、 teachers think of it as a link between home and school. Work that students do at home each night can give their mothers and fathers information about what is being learned in school and how it is being taught. Nicholas is a 17-year-old high school student in Burke, Virginia. He has about two hours

10、of homework each night. Nick says he spends more time studying if he is preparing for a test. Here is an example of one nights work. Last Thursday night Nick had to solve 20 mathematics problems, read and take notes on about 30 pages of an American history book, answer 15 science questions and compl

11、ete a written report about part-time job.,2）列舉說明 列舉說明是一種常見的說明手法。用這種方法說明事物，清楚明了。一般情況下，列舉的順序與內(nèi)容的重要性、時(shí)間的先后、位置的遠(yuǎn)近等相關(guān)。常用的詞語有：first, second/next/then, finally/lastly; one, another, still another; for one thing, for another等。 Early rising is helpful in more than one way. Firstly, it helps to keep us fit. W

12、e all need fresh air, but the air is never so fresh as early in the morning. So, doing morning exercise can do good to our health. Secondly, early rising helps us in our studies. We learn more quickly in the morning, and find it easier to remember what we learn in the morning. Thirdly, early rising

13、enables us to plan the work of the day. We cannot work well without a good plan. Just as the plan for the year should be made in the spring, so the plan for the day should be made in the morning. Fourthly, early rising gives us enough time to get ready for our work.,3）定義 當(dāng)要解釋的主題為一概念時(shí)，通常使用下定義的方法解釋事物的

14、組成、特征、用途等，以區(qū)別于其他事物或現(xiàn)象。定義要用準(zhǔn)確簡潔的語言對(duì)事物的本質(zhì)特征或區(qū)別于其他事物的屬性進(jìn)行說明。在解釋說明一般的事物時(shí)，經(jīng)常使用be, mean, be called, be defined as, be known as, be referred to as等給事物下定義。 Only a person far away from home knows what homesickness is. It is the welling-up tears in your eyes, the lump in your throat, the waving hands when the

15、 train is drawing out of the station and taking you away from home. It is the strength with which you walk the three miles to your home with heavy bags in your hands after a long tiring trip, and the halt, excitement, and hesitation at the doorstep.,4）分類說明 在說明文中，為了使讀者更深入、更細(xì)致地了解所說明的事物，通常在概括性介紹或?qū)κ挛镞M(jìn)行通

16、用定義后，通常還使用分類說明的手法做進(jìn)一步解釋。 There are two general kinds of steel: carbon steel and alloy steel. Carbon steel contains only iron and carbon, while alloy steel contains other elements as well, such as nickel, chromium, tungsten, etc. The properties of carbon steels, notably strength and hardness, depend

17、on the amount of carbon they contain. Low carbon steel is relatively soft and weak; medium carbon steel is both harder and stronger than low carbon steel, while high carbon steel is the hardest and strongest. The additional elements of alloy steel make it not only stronger and harder than carbon ste

18、el, but resistant to rust as well. For this reason, alloy steel is also called stainless steel.,5）對(duì)比說明 對(duì)比也是說明事物常用的手法，常和分類緊密聯(lián)系。對(duì)事物分類之后通常對(duì)所分類的事物的異同進(jìn)行比較，以便使讀者更清楚地了解所說明的事物。對(duì)比說明事物時(shí)，可以通過比較級(jí)，也可以使用與比較有關(guān)的詞或詞組。這類詞或詞組有：be the same as, be similar to, be identical with/to, be comparable to, be analogous to, rese

19、mble, like, likewise, similarly, equally important, in the same way等；表示差異的詞語包括：be different from, differ from, be distinct from, unlike, in contrast, by contrast, on the contrary, conversely, instead, whereas, while等。 The most obvious difference between radio and television is that you listen and lo

20、ok at the television, but just listen to the radio. In this way, radio is more imaginative because it forces you to form pictures in your own mind rather than providing you with visual information, which is what television does. In addition, radio is more flexible than television , since Still anoth

21、er advantage of radio is that it is more personal than television.,6）因果說明 在需要解釋事物的發(fā)生原因和產(chǎn)生的結(jié)果時(shí)，要通過客觀、正確的推理將全文展開，使文章內(nèi)容合乎邏輯，結(jié)構(gòu)清楚。所要說明的主題中有reason, cause, justify, why, result, consequence, outcome, effect等詞時(shí)，一般要用到因果說明法。表示因果關(guān)系的詞語很多。 Why I Want a Wife I belong to that classification of people known as wiv

22、es. I am A Wife. And, not altogether incidentally, I am a mother. Not too long ago a male friend of mine appeared on the scene fresh from a recent divorce. He had one child, who is, of course, with his ex-wife. His is looking for another wife. It suddenly occurred to me that I, too, would like to ha

23、ve a wife. Why do I want a wife? I would like to go back to school so that I can become economically independent, support myself, and, if need be, support those dependent upon me. I want a wife who will work and send me to school. And while I am going to school I want a wife to take care of my child

24、ren. I want a wife to keep track of the childrens doctor and dentist appointments. And to keep track of mine, too. I want a wife to make sure my children eat properly and are kept clean. ,Computer virus, whose essence component is a set of instructions, is one kind of threat to the security and inte

25、grity of computer system. Nowadays computer systems worldwide are often infected by computer viruses. Some cause the loss of programs and date, erase files or subtly alter data. Others even crash computers or make them useless. In this way, each year they cause tens of billions (US$) of losses. Its

26、estimated there are about 4500 kinds of computer viruses, being unleashed at the rate of about 5 per day. How terrible! A case in point is “Love Bug” which proclaims “I Love You” in the E-mail subject line. Once the Internet surfer opens the file with “I Love You”, the viruses would copy themselves

27、and destroy valuable computer pictures and video files. Another case in point is the CIH, which is also very destructive. Besides, there are also “Tedious”, “Concept F” and “Explore Zip”, “Romeo therefore, it is absolutely necessary for us to save and protect them. Secondly, in order to protect our

28、environment from serious greenhouse effect, we need a low-carbon emission. It is low-carbon life that enables our next generations to live a better and superior life.,What we should bear in mind is that the earth is common home. Thus, every one is well advised to practice this lifestyle and there ar

29、e several ways for us to do this. Firstly, every one is expected to cultivate their awareness of saving energy. Then, we are also hoped to help our families and friends to live a low-carbon life. Only by doing so can we hope to create a world where all humans enjoy a clean and tidy environment. (185

30、words),Concept and Basic Structure,議論文的概念 議論文是一種議論說理的文章，以抽象的思維形式，通過運(yùn)用概念、判斷、推理等邏輯形式論證和闡述作者的觀點(diǎn)，表明作者贊成什么、反對(duì)什么。議論文的目的主要是說服別人接受或支持某種觀點(diǎn)，同意所提出的某項(xiàng)決策或采取所倡導(dǎo)的某種行動(dòng)。因此，議論文寫作必須做到論點(diǎn)明確、論據(jù)充分、論證嚴(yán)密。 議論文強(qiáng)調(diào)準(zhǔn)確性和邏輯性，注重篇章結(jié)構(gòu)，講究修辭模式。另外，議論文常使用規(guī)范的書面語，因?yàn)闀嬲Z更能增添文章的厚重感和讀者對(duì)文章的信任感。議論文的句子之間常使用連接詞，以便使文章脈絡(luò)更加清晰，邏輯關(guān)系更加流暢。,議論文的標(biāo)題 議論文的標(biāo)題必

31、須反映出議論的主題或作者的論點(diǎn)。所以，常用以下幾種形式的標(biāo)題： 1）疑問句：這類標(biāo)題本身就體現(xiàn)了爭論的焦點(diǎn)。例如：Who Influence Young Children Most? Is a Test of Spoken English Necessary? Can Money Buy Happiness? 2）陳述句：這類標(biāo)題本身就是議論文的論點(diǎn)。例如：Parents Are Spoiling Their Children, Rock Music Is Rotting Our Kids Mind等。 3）名詞短語：這類標(biāo)題沒體現(xiàn)出論點(diǎn)，而是只提供了引論的主題。例如：Computer Gam

32、es, Positive and Negative Aspects of Sports, My View on the Negative Effects of Some Advertisements等。 4）介詞短語：這類標(biāo)題通常由介詞on, toward等引出議論的話題。例如：On Reading, Toward a Good Teacher-Student Relationship等。,議論文與說明文密切相關(guān)。二者的相似之處在于：都有說理成分，都是解釋某個(gè)事實(shí)或某個(gè)思想的文體。 區(qū)別：說明文是客觀的解釋說明某一事物、觀點(diǎn)等。而議論文則通過作者主觀上的說理和論證來影響讀者的思想和行動(dòng)。,議論

33、文要有三部分構(gòu)成: 論點(diǎn)、論據(jù)和論證。 A.首先， 提出論點(diǎn)。既然論點(diǎn)是全篇的思想，注意寫作時(shí)，：開門破題。論點(diǎn)的提出要簡潔、鮮明、清晰、不含糊其辭，不迂回曲折。讓讀者在最短時(shí)間內(nèi)了解你最想說什么。（中西思維差異）同時(shí)論點(diǎn)一定要正確，否則不能自圓其說。 B.其次 ， 選擇論據(jù)。論據(jù)是論證過程必備的手段。沒有論據(jù)的論證空洞無物，形似枯槁。論據(jù)的來源有：事實(shí)依據(jù)（例證法）、數(shù)據(jù)顯示、名言警句、格言、科學(xué)理論、專家見解等。,可爭辯的論點(diǎn) 任何一篇議論文必須有論點(diǎn)。議論文的論點(diǎn)是指作者在文章中所表明的主張、見解或觀點(diǎn)，它是議論文的核心內(nèi)容，是議論文的綱。議論文對(duì)論點(diǎn)的要求是：正確、鮮明、新穎。議論文的

34、論點(diǎn)通常用I believe, as far as Im concerned, in my opinion, to my mind, however, yet, unfortunately等詞語引出。有時(shí)，作者不使用這些詞語，而是直接表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn)。,1）議論文的論點(diǎn)必須是可爭辯的。 例如，I dont think euthanasia is humane和I believe that issuing lottery tickets is a good way to collect funds for social welfare projects都是可爭議的論點(diǎn)。相反，事實(shí)、個(gè)人偏愛、或已被

35、科學(xué)證實(shí)為人們普遍接受的觀點(diǎn)通常都是不可爭辯的，因此不是好的論點(diǎn)。例如，language is a tool for communication, my favorite food is fish, pollution is harmful to peoples health都不適合做論點(diǎn)。,請(qǐng)看以下分析： a. I think, in China, the examination score is regarded as important in making a decision. b. In my opinion, it is not easy to achieve success. c

36、. To my mind, taxis have become an important transportation means. d. I think cooperation is very important in our work. e. I believe we should have more fast food restaurants in big cities.,2）論點(diǎn)必須鮮明，不能含含糊糊 在開始學(xué)習(xí)議論文寫作時(shí)，最好把論點(diǎn)放在開頭，因?yàn)檫@樣做能達(dá)到開宗明義、開門見山的效果，也為后面的論述創(chuàng)造條件。尤其是在考試中，一篇議論文的字?jǐn)?shù)不多，應(yīng)盡快地?cái)[出論點(diǎn)，使文章中心明確，更應(yīng)

37、該把論點(diǎn)置于文章的開頭。,C.進(jìn)行論證。論證方法有：歸納法；演繹法；駁論法。 根據(jù)論述的方法和角度，議論文大致可以分為四種類型： 1。觀點(diǎn)對(duì)立型議論文。 基本步驟：引出話題擺出觀點(diǎn)我的觀點(diǎn)。還可細(xì)分為： 1.1 引出話題擺出一種觀點(diǎn)表明我與之相對(duì)的另一種觀點(diǎn) 1.2 引出話題分別提出兩種觀點(diǎn)表明我同意其中一種觀點(diǎn)并說明,1.3 引出話題分別提出了兩種觀點(diǎn)表明任何一種觀點(diǎn)我都不同意并提出自己的觀點(diǎn). 注意：倘若選擇上面1.1或1.3的模式，那么可以在第二部分里留有足夠的“謬論”空間， 以便自己在后面加以反駁并建立自己的觀點(diǎn)。 若選擇1.2模式，注意在第二部分寫到自己同意的一方的觀點(diǎn)時(shí)不要著墨太多

38、，而應(yīng)當(dāng)把充分的文字語言流到第三部分加強(qiáng)自己的論證。以避免論據(jù)的重復(fù)。,實(shí)例： Is Failure a Bad Thing? Failure is a common thing in our daily life. Everybody is bound to meet with failures more or less in their routines. Is it a good thing or bad thing? That s often a hot discussion.(引出話題） Different people have different attitudes toward

39、s failure. Some people will become very disappointed after the blow of failure. They will lose their confidence to continue their work. As a result, no progress or achievement will be made. In contrast, the bright ones will learn from,failure and sum up their experience, improve their methods and wo

40、rk more diligently and wisely. Finally success will belong to them. Many well-known scientists , such as Edison, Nobel, Madam Curie, have set us good examples In my opinion, failure is not a bad thing. It is impossible for us to succeed immediately in doing anything. Only sfter a lot of failures and

41、 making painstaking efforts can success be achieved. Failure willl help us become more realistic and clever. When coming across failure, We should remember the proverb: Filure is the mother of success, and never give up our perseverance until success is approaching.（1.2模式）,2. 問題解決型議論文 問題解決型議論文是遵循：提出

42、問題分析問題解決問題的基本步驟進(jìn)行的。審題時(shí)要弄清什么樣的現(xiàn)象，第二部分要給出具體原因，第三部分給出相應(yīng)對(duì)策。為了使文章有序，最好用firstly, secondly, finally etc.的過渡詞。 例如下文;,Job Problems for Graduates It is reported that only 50% percent of college students in 2000 could find jobs in their specialities, compared with 89% percent in 1981. Why do college graduates

43、find it increasingly difficult to get a rewarding job? One reason perhaps is that many colleges and universities fail to adapt their courses to the development of economy. Degree courses offered in these institutions of higher learning are outdated, irrelevant and impractical that the students thems

44、elves find it hard to translate their book knowledge into real job skills . Second, there is an oversupply of graduate in certain specialities, and the number is increasing. So ,many of them can not enter the profession for which they are trained and have to take other jobs which do not require a co

45、llege degree. College graduates are valuable resources in our country. The problems they encounter in job hunting deserve more attention. Firstly, the college should get students out of the ivory tower and have their courses meet the need of the society so as to suit the development of the national

46、economy. Secondly, the government should provide college graduates with more opportunities to develop new skills. Thirdly, students themselves should train themselves in various fields rather than studying subjects only, to enlarge their eysights and expand their mind.,3. 說明利弊型議論文 這種是針對(duì)某一事物或現(xiàn)象從正反兩方面

47、分析他的優(yōu)缺點(diǎn)，然后表明自己的看法，此類作文一般可以寫成“三段式”或“四段式”的文章。具體寫作步驟：描述現(xiàn)象表明其優(yōu)點(diǎn)說明其缺點(diǎn)我的看法或觀點(diǎn)。,4. 闡述主題型議論文 闡述型議論文主要就某一問題正面闡述自己的觀點(diǎn)，說明自己的理由。 闡述主題型議論文寫作步驟：a.揭示成語、諺語、格言的蘊(yùn)義以例證展開論證結(jié)論（號(hào)召或建議） b. 引出主題按照提綱要求進(jìn)一步分析主題結(jié)論（聯(lián)系實(shí)際給出建議）。 這種題型大多是帶有說明色彩的議論文， 它要求考生從一句話或一個(gè)主題出發(fā)， 闡述其內(nèi)涵，說明其重要性并以自己的觀點(diǎn)或自身經(jīng)驗(yàn)結(jié)尾。,For a Better Understanding Between Pare

48、nt and Child There is often a misunderstanding between parent and child nowadays . We often hear parents complain that their children are behaving unresonably while quite a lot of children would often say that his or her parents are just hopelessly old fashinedand old-minded. When the child encounte

49、rs a problem, he will go to his friends for advice instead of parents, who are left totally unaware of this problem. There are some possible reasons for the present situation. The most obvious one is that they grow up at different times and therefore have different opinions an dperspectives for the

50、things aroudn them. Also parent is often too busy to listen patiently to the explaination of the child when misyunderstanding arises. Both of them take it for granted that there is a generation gap between Them.,To bridge this so called generation gap, both parent and child should make an effort. Th

51、ey should try to look at things from the others perspectives. As a start , they should try to spend more time with each other.,預(yù)測(cè)之二：（問題解決型議論文） Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic Cyber Crimes. You should write at least 150 words, and base your co

52、mposition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:1)隨著互聯(lián)網(wǎng)的普及和應(yīng)用，網(wǎng)絡(luò)犯罪開始擺在世人面前2)應(yīng)該如何來打擊和預(yù)防網(wǎng)絡(luò)犯罪越來越成為人們必須要解決的一個(gè)難題3)作為大學(xué)生，你應(yīng)該怎么做?,Cyber Crimes With the popularization of Internet, cyber crimes have become a serious problem facing us. Nowadays cyber criminals seem to be everywhere on the Internet. To illu

53、strate, some commit fraud or lift intellectual property, others snatch passwords or disrupt e-commerce, and still others unleash viruses to crash computers. As a result, these crimes destroy network security greatly and make computer users suffer great losses.,However, we shouldnt tolerate these cyb

54、er criminals any more. Its high time for us to take effective measures to fight against cyber crimes. First, we should reinforce the cyber laws to punish cyber criminals strictly. Moreover, we should develop high techniques as soon as possible to improve intrusion detection and prevent cyber crimes. Besides, more talented people should be trained and more effective firewalls should be built up so as to make the net immune to all kinds of viruses.,As college st