1、 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)口玩具的安全，消費者保護(hù)和世界貿(mào)易組織的技術(shù)貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)定：前景，進(jìn)展和問題全球貿(mào)易、人權(quán)和進(jìn)口的安全人類和動物受進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品感染的風(fēng)險不應(yīng)該被過分夸大。受污染的二乙二醇感冒藥導(dǎo)致 100 多人死亡，幾十人得病，其中多達(dá) 21 人死亡可能與肝素有關(guān)。肝素是一種流行的抗凝劑，它廣泛應(yīng)用于透析和心臟手術(shù)中，以達(dá)到延緩血液凝塊的目的。據(jù)美國食品與藥品監(jiān)督管理局(FDA)調(diào)查所知，這個主要的抗血凝藥物包含一個偽造成份，美國食品與藥品監(jiān)督管理局采用先進(jìn)的磁場核磁共振成像的測試來讓它模擬真正的藥物。據(jù)了解，美國食品及藥品監(jiān)督管理局發(fā)現(xiàn)多達(dá) 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)20%的產(chǎn)品的

2、活躍成分是假的。在一個快速全球化的世界中，各國應(yīng)如何確保進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品的安全呢？世貿(mào)組織成員國能單方面對玩具的制定特點或相關(guān)的工藝流程及生產(chǎn)方法采用新條例嗎？這些問題是由技術(shù)法規(guī)和國際貿(mào)易法的相關(guān)準(zhǔn)則以及人權(quán)法而產(chǎn)生的。一方面,技術(shù)法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)既可以作為一種貿(mào)易壁壘，同時對消費者產(chǎn)品偏好、質(zhì)量期望和價格選擇產(chǎn)生負(fù)面影響。技術(shù)法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中有關(guān)玩具質(zhì)量和安全的規(guī)定即這些規(guī)定并沒有歧視性的“法理”或“事實”， 但這些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和法規(guī)在國際之間的差異也有可能造成貿(mào)易障礙。假定組成世界貿(mào)易組織的 153 個成員決定創(chuàng)造他們自己的玩具安全法規(guī)及標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，對于一個中國玩具制造商來說，他有可能就得面對 153 種法規(guī)，并且還要

3、遵守這些法規(guī)及標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，而這樣會導(dǎo)致他失去規(guī)模經(jīng)濟。在另一方面, 技術(shù)法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)又讓人們越來越認(rèn)識到健康與安全條例是政府責(zé)任的核心。各國政府有主權(quán)權(quán)利和責(zé)任來保護(hù)他們的公民免受傷害。 A/RES/54/165 號決議在1999 年通過了，聯(lián)合國大會指出：“雖然世界趨于全球化，但一個國家所扮演的角色有可能影響人權(quán)，促進(jìn)和保護(hù)所有人權(quán)是國家的首要責(zé)任”。A/RES/54/165 號決議的第 15 條中也強調(diào)：“分析全球化對充分享有各項人權(quán)的影響是必要的”。其第 16 條是關(guān)于兒童的健康和安全，聯(lián)合國公約關(guān)于兒童權(quán)利（CRC）的第 3 條中規(guī)定：“關(guān)于兒童的一切行動，不論是由公私社會福利機構(gòu)、法院、行政

4、當(dāng)局或立法機構(gòu)執(zhí)行，均應(yīng)以兒童的最大利益為一種首要考慮?！钡?17 條中兒童權(quán)利 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)委員會還對每一個孩子的生命權(quán)（第 6 條），健康權(quán)（第 24 條）和“適當(dāng)年齡孩子休息和閑暇，以及從事游戲和娛樂活動”的權(quán)利進(jìn)行擔(dān)保。根據(jù)兒童權(quán)利公約 19 條的規(guī)定:“締約國應(yīng)采取一切適當(dāng)?shù)牧⒎?、行政、社會和教育措施，保護(hù)兒童在受父母、法定監(jiān)護(hù)人或其他任何負(fù)責(zé)照管兒童的人的照料時，不致受到任何形式的身心摧殘、傷害或凌辱 ，忽視或照料不周，虐待或剝削，包括性侵犯”?？偟膩碚f,技術(shù)法規(guī)和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)涉及了國家主權(quán)、國內(nèi)安全、衛(wèi)生、人權(quán)和自由貿(mào)易這些敏感的問題。政策制定者正面臨著應(yīng)如何采取法律和政策來充分地

5、保護(hù)公民的權(quán)利和福利,而又不至于破壞公民的基本原則的多邊貿(mào)易體制的挑戰(zhàn)。哈佛大學(xué)國際發(fā)展中心認(rèn)為：“政府法規(guī)或商品的行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)至少在三個方面影響貿(mào)易：首先，他們可以以清楚地定義交易產(chǎn)品的特點、改善兼容性和可用性的方式來方便交易；他們也可以提高國內(nèi)社會標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，比如公共衛(wèi)生通過建立最低標(biāo)準(zhǔn)或安全要求規(guī)定；最后，他們還可以隱藏保護(hù)主義政策”。產(chǎn)品安全，國內(nèi)管理自主權(quán)和世貿(mào)組織技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議政府法規(guī)和行業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)制定了一些產(chǎn)品的特性，TBT 協(xié)定也涵蓋了有關(guān)玩具的相關(guān)生產(chǎn)流程和生產(chǎn)方法。TBT 協(xié)議將技術(shù)法規(guī)定義為一個“制定產(chǎn)品特征或相關(guān)的工藝和生產(chǎn)方法”的文件，它既包括了適用的行政規(guī)定，該規(guī)定是強制性的

6、，也包括了專門術(shù)語、符號、包裝、標(biāo)志或標(biāo)簽，其要求適用于產(chǎn)品、工藝或生產(chǎn)方法。技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議也適用于技術(shù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和合格評定，恰如該協(xié)議中的附件 I 所說的。 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議所涵蓋的產(chǎn)品范圍較廣。從本質(zhì)上講，所有產(chǎn)品，包括工業(yè)和農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)品都受 TBT 第 21 條協(xié)議規(guī)定。然而，采購規(guī)格是由第 22 條協(xié)議“政府機構(gòu)對產(chǎn)品的編制或政府機構(gòu)消費需求”規(guī)定。技術(shù)貿(mào)易壁壘是尊重國家主權(quán)，保障公民健康和安全，確保技術(shù)法規(guī)對國際貿(mào)易的變相貿(mào)易壁壘不運作之間的一條連接線。如第六段序言段所示：“任何國家都應(yīng)采取措施保障出口產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量，保護(hù)人類健康和安全，保護(hù)動植物的生命和健康，保護(hù)生態(tài)環(huán)境

7、，或防止欺詐行為，在此范圍內(nèi)認(rèn)為是合理的，可以根據(jù)本協(xié)議規(guī)定，而技術(shù)貿(mào)易壁壘不適用于一系列專制或國家之間的不公平歧視?！奔夹g(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘的協(xié)議和尊重國內(nèi)監(jiān)督管理自治雖然 TBT 協(xié)定的一些規(guī)定似乎限制國內(nèi)監(jiān)管自主，但是從該協(xié)議的其他規(guī)定來看它又保持了國內(nèi)監(jiān)管自主權(quán)。首先，在第 2 條第 4 款規(guī)定中表明：“各成員的技術(shù)法規(guī)是不完全的，應(yīng)以相關(guān)的國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為基礎(chǔ)”。當(dāng)相關(guān)的囯際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)無效或不合適時這條規(guī)定是不適用的。其次，即使一個國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)存在，各成員沒必要完全依照該標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，各成員可以采用這種標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的相關(guān)部分。再次，如果成員國所采取的措施是為了挑戰(zhàn)另外的成員國，則相關(guān)的國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)將是有效或合理的。在“歐共體

8、沙丁魚”中，世貿(mào)組織上訴機構(gòu)認(rèn)為抱怨國有義務(wù)證明被抱怨方違反了技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議第 2 條第 4 款中的規(guī)定。因此，起訴成員不僅要表明有關(guān)國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)沒有被用作挑戰(zhàn)法規(guī)的依據(jù)，還必須表明有關(guān)的國際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)對相應(yīng)成員是一個有效或適當(dāng)?shù)氖侄?。最后，政?中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)的采購是不在 TBT 協(xié)定中的。技術(shù)性貿(mào)易壁壘協(xié)議第 1 條第 4 款中明確規(guī)定：“政府機構(gòu)為其生產(chǎn)或消費要求所制定的采購規(guī)格不受本協(xié)定規(guī)定的約束，而應(yīng)根據(jù)政府采購協(xié)定的范圍由該協(xié)定處理?！?因此，各地方、州和聯(lián)邦政府的采購規(guī)范是不在該協(xié)議下的。文獻(xiàn)來源：Uche U. Ofodile. Import (toy) safety, cons

9、umer protection and the WTOAgreement on Technical Barriers to Trade: prospects, progress andproblems. Int. J. Private Law, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2009 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)Import (toy) safety, consumer protection and the WTOAgreement on Technical Barriers to Trade: prospects, progress andproblemsGlobal trade, human rig

10、hts and import safetyThe risk to human and animal life of tainted imported productscannot be overstated. More than 100 people died from taking thediethylene glycol-tainted cold medicines and dozens more became ill. Asmany as 21 deaths may be linked to heparin, a popular blood thinnerwidely used in d

11、ialysis and heart procedures to stave off blood clots.According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the criticalblood thinner contained a counterfeit ingredient that mimicked the realdrug.14 Using sophisticated magnetic resonance imaging tests, the FDAuncovered that as much as 20% of the p

12、roducts active ingredient was animitation.In a fast globalising world, how can countries be sure that productsthat arrive on their shores are safe? Can WTO member states unilaterallyadopt new regulations that lay down characteristics or related processesand production methods for toys? The question

13、arises because technicalregulations and standards implicate international trade law and human 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)rights law. On one hand, technical regulations and standards can operateas barriers to trade and negatively impact consumer product preferences,quality expectations and price options. Technical reg

14、ulations andstandards relating to toy quality and safety, even if not discriminatory dejure or de facto may create obstacles to trade by the fact that thesestandards and regulations vary from one country to another. Assuming the153 members that make up the WTO decide to create their own toy safetyre

15、gulations and standards, a toy manufacturer in China, for example,would be faced with some 153 regulations to comply with. The resultwould be loss of economies of scale. On other hand, it is increasinglyrecognised that health and safety regulations are at the core ofgovernment responsibility. Govern

16、ments have the sovereign right and theresponsibility to protect their citizens from harm. In ResolutionA/RES/54/165 adopted in 1999, the United Nations General Assemblynoted that while globalisation, by its impact on, inter alia, the role ofthe state may affect human rights, the promotion and protec

17、tion of allhuman rights is, first and foremost, the responsibility of the state.15Resolution A/RES/54/165 also emphasized the need to analyse theconsequences of globalisation for the full enjoyment of all humanrights.16 Regarding the health and safety of children, Article 3 of theUnited Nations Conv

18、ention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) stipulates 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)that in all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public orprivate social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authoritiesor legislative bodies, the best interests of the child shall be a primaryconsideration.17

19、The CRC also guarantees to every child, the right to life(Article 6), the right to health (Article 24) and the right to rest andleisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the ageof the child. Pursuant to Article 19 of the CRC, states parties undertaketo take all appropriat

20、e legislative, administrative, social and educationalmeasures to protect the child from all forms of injury or abusewhile in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person whohas the care of the child.Overall, technical regulations and standards touch on sensitiveissues of state sovere

21、ignty, domestic security, public health, human rightsand free trade. The challenge for policy makers is to adopt laws andpolicies that adequately protect the rights and welfare of their citizenswithout undermining the fundamental principles of the multilateraltrading system. As the Center for Intern

22、ational Development at HarvardUniversity rightly observed that government regulations or industrystandards for goods can impact trade in at least three ways: they canfacilitate exchange by clearly defining product characteristics andimproving compatibility and usability; they also advance domestic s

23、ocial 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)goals like public health by establishing minimum standards or prescribingsafety requirements; finally, they can hide protectionist policies.18Product safety, domestic regulatory autonomy and the WTO TBTAgreementGovernment regulations and industry standards that lay downcharacteristics

24、 or related processes and production methods for toys arecovered by the TBT Agreement. The Agreement defines a technicalregulation as a document which lays down product characteristics ortheir related processes and production methods, including the applicableadministrative provisions, with which com

25、pliance is mandatory. It mayalso include or deal exclusively with terminology, symbols, packaging,marking or labelling requirements as they apply to a product, process orproduction method.19 The TBT Agreement also applies to technicalstandards and conformity assessment as defined in Annex I of theAg

26、reement.20 The TBT Agreement covers a broad range of products.Essentially, all products, including industrial and agricultural products aresubject to the provisions of the agreement.21 Excluded, however, arepurchasing specifications prepared by governmental bodies forproduction or consumption requir

27、ements of governmental bodies.22The TBT Agreement works a fine line between respecting thesovereign right of states to safeguard the health and safety of their 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)citizens and ensuring that technical regulations do not operate asdisguised barriers to international trade. The sixth preambular p

28、aragraphreads: “Recognising that no country should be prevented from takingmeasures necessary to ensure the quality of its exports, or for theprotection of human, animal or plant life or health, of the environment, orfor the prevention of deceptive practices, at the levels it considersappropriate, s

29、ubject to the requirement that they are not applied in amanner which would constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiablediscrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail or adisguised restriction on international trade and are otherwise inaccordance with the provisions of this Ag

30、reement.”The TBT Agreement and respect for domestic regulatory autonomyWhile some provisions of the TBT Agreement appear to constraindomestic regulatory autonomy, other provisions of the Agreement appearsto preserve domestic regulatory autonomy. First, the requirement inArticle 2.4 that members use

31、relevant international standards as a basisfor their technical regulation is not absolute. The requirement does notapply when relevant international standards would be an ineffective orinappropriate means for the fulfilment of the legitimate objectivespursued members.38 Second, even when a pertinent

32、 international 中英文外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)standard exists, members need not base their measure entirely on such astandard, but can use relevant parts of such standards. Third, the burdenof proof is on a member challenging another members measure to provethat the relevant international standards would not be an ineffective orinappropriate means for the fulfillment of the legitimate objectivespursued by the member whose measure is challenged.