兒童發(fā)展概論

GrowthandDevelopment首都師范大學(xué)黃翯青發(fā)展學(xué)科：一門關(guān)于年齡的科學(xué)孔子關(guān)于年齡的思想吾十有五，而志與學(xué)，三十而立，四十而不惑，五十而知天命，六十而耳順，七十而從心所欲，不愈矩。零歲出場(chǎng)亮相十歲天天向上二十遠(yuǎn)大理想三十到處吃香四十奮發(fā)圖強(qiáng)五十開(kāi)始走樣六十衣錦還鄉(xiāng)七十打打麻將八十曬曬太陽(yáng),九十躺在床上,一百歲肯定掛在墻上。我的世界：人若有100歲的境界，80歲的胸懷，60歲的智慧，40歲的意志，20歲的激情，加上兩三歲的童心，該有多好?。。?！全書內(nèi)容概要第一章緒論第二章兒童發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)第三章兒童感知覺(jué)和注意的發(fā)展第四章兒童記憶的發(fā)展第五章兒童想象、思維的發(fā)展第六章兒童言語(yǔ)的發(fā)展第七章兒童情緒的發(fā)展第八章兒童社會(huì)性的發(fā)展第九章兒童個(gè)性的發(fā)展第十章兒童道德的發(fā)展第十一章兒童發(fā)展的認(rèn)知神經(jīng)科學(xué)研究第一章緒論第一節(jié)兒童發(fā)展概述第二節(jié)兒童發(fā)展研究的歷史和現(xiàn)狀第三節(jié)兒童發(fā)展研究方法第一節(jié)兒童發(fā)展概述兒童期涵蓋的年齡范圍兒童發(fā)展的年齡范圍是個(gè)體從不成熟成熟這一成長(zhǎng)階段，是個(gè)體生命發(fā)展的重要組成部分?；煦纾捶只只?，專門化被動(dòng)，不隨意主動(dòng)，隨意認(rèn)識(shí)外部認(rèn)識(shí)內(nèi)部態(tài)度不穩(wěn)定穩(wěn)定生物人社會(huì)人

一兒童童發(fā)展概概念兒童的哪哪些方面面在發(fā)展和和變化？？?jī)和l(fā)展展的領(lǐng)域域生理發(fā)展展認(rèn)知發(fā)展展個(gè)性和社社會(huì)性發(fā)發(fā)展文化性發(fā)發(fā)展發(fā)展是指指?jìng)€(gè)體身身體、生生理、心心理、行行為等方方面的發(fā)發(fā)育、成成長(zhǎng)、分化、成成熟和變變化的過(guò)過(guò)程。身體結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)的變化化思維方式式的變化化13學(xué)步兒和和5歲孩子的的身體樣樣子很不不一樣。。這個(gè)女女孩和她她的小弟弟弟相比比，身體體線條看看上去更更像大人人。兒童發(fā)展展的特點(diǎn)點(diǎn)發(fā)展的基基礎(chǔ)性發(fā)展的遞遞進(jìn)性發(fā)展的易易感性兒童發(fā)展展的特點(diǎn)點(diǎn)發(fā)展的基基礎(chǔ)性發(fā)展的遞遞進(jìn)性發(fā)展的易易感性兒童發(fā)展展的特點(diǎn)點(diǎn)發(fā)展的基基礎(chǔ)性發(fā)展的遞遞進(jìn)性發(fā)展的易易感性兒童發(fā)展展的特點(diǎn)點(diǎn)發(fā)展的基基礎(chǔ)性發(fā)展的遞遞進(jìn)性發(fā)展的易易感性兒童發(fā)展展的概念念發(fā)展的基基礎(chǔ)性發(fā)展的遞遞進(jìn)性發(fā)展的易易感性年齡領(lǐng)域第二節(jié)兒兒童發(fā)發(fā)展研究究的歷史史和現(xiàn)狀狀.兒童發(fā)展展和人類類發(fā)展心理的種種系發(fā)展展廣義發(fā)展心理理學(xué)狹義發(fā)展心理理學(xué)心理的種種族發(fā)展展個(gè)體心理理發(fā)展（（生→死）2.發(fā)展心理理學(xué)的概概念研究個(gè)體體從受精精卵開(kāi)始始到出生生、到成成熟、直直至衰老老的生命命全程中中心理發(fā)發(fā)生、發(fā)發(fā)展的特特點(diǎn)和規(guī)規(guī)律的科科學(xué)。即研究畢畢生心理理發(fā)展特特點(diǎn)和規(guī)規(guī)律的科科學(xué)。比較心理理學(xué)（動(dòng)動(dòng)物心理理學(xué)）民族心理理學(xué)廣義發(fā)展展心理學(xué)學(xué)是研究種種系和個(gè)個(gè)體心理理發(fā)生與與發(fā)展的的科學(xué)包含心理理的種系系發(fā)展（（比較心心理學(xué)/動(dòng)物心理理學(xué)）、、心理的的種族發(fā)發(fā)展（民民族心理理學(xué)）和和個(gè)體心心理發(fā)展展（個(gè)體體發(fā)展心心理學(xué)））。狹義發(fā)展展心理學(xué)學(xué)即個(gè)體發(fā)展展心理學(xué)學(xué)，是關(guān)于于人的個(gè)個(gè)體從受受精卵開(kāi)開(kāi)始到出出生、成成熟、直直至衰老老的生命命全程中中心理發(fā)發(fā)生、發(fā)發(fā)展特點(diǎn)點(diǎn)和規(guī)律律的科學(xué)學(xué)。發(fā)展心理理學(xué)發(fā)展心理學(xué)畢生（生命全程）年齡特征研究對(duì)象研究?jī)?nèi)容二部分四方面感覺(jué)知覺(jué)記憶想象思維興趣動(dòng)機(jī)情感價(jià)值觀自我意識(shí)氣質(zhì)性格社會(huì)生活教育條件生理因素動(dòng)作活動(dòng)發(fā)展言語(yǔ)發(fā)展認(rèn)知社會(huì)性質(zhì)的特征智力活動(dòng)動(dòng)人格先天后天天外因內(nèi)因因階段連續(xù)續(xù)青春期胎兒受精卵—出生——成熟——衰老嬰兒期童年期青年期中年期老年期幼兒期個(gè)體發(fā)展展心理學(xué)學(xué)（狹義）基本原理理三、種系系發(fā)展與與個(gè)體發(fā)發(fā)展種系發(fā)展展（廣義）種族發(fā)展展個(gè)體心理理發(fā)展（狹義）動(dòng)物人類動(dòng)物/比比較心理學(xué)民族心理學(xué)個(gè)體發(fā)展展心理學(xué)學(xué)什么東西西早上是是四條腿腿，到了了中午是是兩條腿腿，當(dāng)太太陽(yáng)落山山時(shí)又變變?yōu)槿龡l條腿？斯芬克斯斯之謎人個(gè)體心理理發(fā)展與與種系心心理發(fā)展展的關(guān)系系個(gè)體發(fā)展展與種系系心理發(fā)發(fā)展的理理論，最最有代表表性的還還是20世紀(jì)初霍霍爾（）的復(fù)演演說(shuō)。帶了81位博士生生，三分分之一是是大學(xué)校校長(zhǎng)或是是國(guó)際上上有名的的心理學(xué)學(xué)家，如如杜威、、卡特爾爾主要觀點(diǎn)點(diǎn)：“兒童乃乃成人之之父”。。個(gè)體的發(fā)發(fā)育和發(fā)發(fā)展是種種系發(fā)生生的各主主要階段段的再現(xiàn)現(xiàn)。1、胎兒在在胎內(nèi)的的發(fā)展復(fù)復(fù)演了動(dòng)動(dòng)物的進(jìn)進(jìn)化過(guò)程程。2、兒童和和青少年年時(shí)期的的心理發(fā)發(fā)展復(fù)演演了人類類進(jìn)化過(guò)過(guò)程①階段：：乳兒期期復(fù)演了了從動(dòng)物物到人的的進(jìn)化；；②8歲前的兒兒童復(fù)演演著原始始人的漁漁獵時(shí)代代；③8-12歲兒童期復(fù)復(fù)演由蒙蒙昧?xí)r代代向文明明時(shí)代的的過(guò)渡時(shí)時(shí)期④少年期復(fù)演了中中世紀(jì)人人類的特特征；⑤青年期復(fù)演了近近代風(fēng)云云變幻的的人類特特征。⑥青年期復(fù)演著人人類浪漫漫主義時(shí)時(shí)代。復(fù)演說(shuō)結(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)圖動(dòng)物物原原始人現(xiàn)現(xiàn)代人人胎兒兒出出生成成熟熟評(píng)論錯(cuò)誤：引引向生物物決定論論（3）評(píng)價(jià)霍爾的復(fù)復(fù)演說(shuō)引引起了心心理學(xué)界界很大爭(zhēng)爭(zhēng)議，我我們應(yīng)用用辯證的的眼光來(lái)來(lái)評(píng)價(jià)它它。復(fù)演演說(shuō)有其其正確的的一面，，因?yàn)槲椅覀冊(cè)趥€(gè)個(gè)體心理理發(fā)展的的過(guò)程中中確實(shí)看看到了一一些返祖祖現(xiàn)象。。但是復(fù)復(fù)演說(shuō)的的錯(cuò)誤在在于把個(gè)個(gè)體發(fā)展展與種系系發(fā)展完完全等同同起來(lái)，，從而引引向了生生物決定定論。第三節(jié)兒兒童發(fā)展研研究方法一、觀察法法：觀察者者通過(guò)自己己的感官或或儀器，對(duì)對(duì)兒童的心心理和行為為變化進(jìn)行行有目的、、有計(jì)劃的的觀察。（一）長(zhǎng)期期觀察和定定期觀察長(zhǎng)期觀察定期觀察（二）全面面觀察和重重點(diǎn)觀察全面觀察重點(diǎn)觀察優(yōu)點(diǎn)：現(xiàn)場(chǎng)場(chǎng)觀察，資資料更客觀觀、全面、、準(zhǔn)確缺點(diǎn)：觀察察質(zhì)量的高高低決定于于觀察者本本人的專業(yè)業(yè)水平第三節(jié)發(fā)發(fā)展心理理學(xué)的主要要研究方法法認(rèn)人為父的的小鵝二、訪談法法訪談法：研研究者通過(guò)過(guò)與兒童進(jìn)進(jìn)行口頭交交談，了解解和搜集有有關(guān)心理特特征資料的的方法。訪談法在兒兒童心理學(xué)學(xué)研究中具具有重要意意義和作用用。根據(jù)訪談內(nèi)內(nèi)容和過(guò)程程是否有統(tǒng)統(tǒng)一要求和和結(jié)構(gòu)：結(jié)結(jié)構(gòu)訪談、、非結(jié)構(gòu)訪訪談根據(jù)是否借借助一定的的中介物：：直接訪談?wù)労烷g接訪訪談優(yōu)點(diǎn)：較針針對(duì)性地收收集證據(jù)，，情境自然然缺點(diǎn)：訪談?wù)劷Y(jié)果的準(zhǔn)準(zhǔn)確性和有有效性受到到訪談?wù)咦宰陨項(xiàng)l件的的限制，費(fèi)費(fèi)時(shí)多，對(duì)對(duì)訪談結(jié)果果進(jìn)行量化化的難度也也較大三、問(wèn)卷法法是研究者用用同一設(shè)計(jì)計(jì)的問(wèn)卷來(lái)來(lái)搜集兒童童心理和行行為資料的的方法問(wèn)題是問(wèn)卷卷的核心。。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：更具具目的性，，內(nèi)容更加加完整，設(shè)設(shè)計(jì)更加嚴(yán)嚴(yán)密，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)準(zhǔn)化程度較較高，可以以在短時(shí)間間內(nèi)搜集到到大量的資資料，所得得數(shù)據(jù)也便便于定量分分析。缺點(diǎn)：?jiǎn)柧砭碓O(shè)計(jì)最關(guān)關(guān)鍵。如果果不當(dāng)，會(huì)會(huì)達(dá)不到預(yù)預(yù)期效果，，對(duì)被試有有書面語(yǔ)能能力的要求求。四、測(cè)驗(yàn)法法測(cè)驗(yàn)法：通通過(guò)測(cè)驗(yàn)量量表來(lái)測(cè)查查兒童心理理發(fā)展特點(diǎn)點(diǎn)和規(guī)律的的方法。編編制測(cè)驗(yàn)量量表需要經(jīng)經(jīng)過(guò)編制測(cè)測(cè)驗(yàn)題目、、預(yù)測(cè)、項(xiàng)項(xiàng)目分析、、合成測(cè)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)、取得信信度和效度度資料，建建立常模等等標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化過(guò)過(guò)程。應(yīng)用用經(jīng)過(guò)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)準(zhǔn)化測(cè)驗(yàn)量量表進(jìn)行測(cè)測(cè)量，將其其得分與常常模分?jǐn)?shù)進(jìn)進(jìn)行比較，，就可以清清楚地了解解兒童在某某方面的發(fā)發(fā)展水平。。如中國(guó)比內(nèi)內(nèi)測(cè)驗(yàn)、韋韋克斯勒智智力量表、、瑞文測(cè)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)，卡特爾爾16項(xiàng)人格因素素量表。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：測(cè)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)量表的編編制嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)，，結(jié)果處理理方便，由由于一些常常模的存在在，可以直直接進(jìn)行對(duì)對(duì)比研究。。缺點(diǎn)：受被被試口頭語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言和書面面語(yǔ)言能力力的限制，，不能用于于測(cè)差低幼幼兒童。瑞文測(cè)驗(yàn)瑞文智力測(cè)測(cè)驗(yàn)畫樹測(cè)驗(yàn)畫人測(cè)驗(yàn)五、實(shí)驗(yàn)法法實(shí)驗(yàn)法：通通過(guò)創(chuàng)設(shè)一一定的情境境，操縱和和控制某些些實(shí)驗(yàn)變量量，來(lái)探討討兒童心理理發(fā)展的原原因和規(guī)律律的方法。。（一）實(shí)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)：：是在專門門的實(shí)驗(yàn)室室內(nèi)，利用用專門的儀儀器和設(shè)備備，對(duì)兒童童的心理發(fā)發(fā)展所進(jìn)行行的研究，，關(guān)于兒童童的各種認(rèn)認(rèn)知能力，，如感覺(jué)、、知覺(jué)、已已憶、思維維等心理過(guò)過(guò)程多用實(shí)實(shí)驗(yàn)室方法法進(jìn)行。如對(duì)嬰兒顏顏色知覺(jué)的的研究被試：3、4個(gè)月的嬰兒兒過(guò)程：對(duì)480毫微米藍(lán)波波形成習(xí)慣慣化；呈現(xiàn)450毫微米藍(lán)色色510毫微米綠色色結(jié)果：嬰兒兒對(duì)綠色表表現(xiàn)出去習(xí)習(xí)慣化，但但對(duì)藍(lán)波沒(méi)沒(méi)有。結(jié)論：嬰兒兒和成人一一樣，是按按顏色的不不同類別做做出反應(yīng)的的。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：能夠夠嚴(yán)格地控控制和操縱縱變量，揭揭示變量間間的因果關(guān)關(guān)系；對(duì)實(shí)實(shí)驗(yàn)過(guò)程和和結(jié)果的記記錄客觀、、準(zhǔn)確，利利于定量分分析，這就就在很大程程度上提高高了研究的的科學(xué)性。。局限：與兒兒童的實(shí)際際生活相脫脫節(jié)，使兒兒童的表現(xiàn)現(xiàn)易帶上非非自然性色色彩。（二）現(xiàn)場(chǎng)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)：是是在現(xiàn)實(shí)的的真實(shí)環(huán)境境中，對(duì)兒兒童心理發(fā)發(fā)展?fàn)顩r所所進(jìn)行的研研究。現(xiàn)場(chǎng)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)的整整體實(shí)驗(yàn)情情景是自然然的，但又又對(duì)某些因因素進(jìn)行了了有目的、、有計(jì)劃的的控制。優(yōu)點(diǎn)：保證證了研究具具有較高的的內(nèi)部和外外部效度。。局限：由于于這種研究究在環(huán)境上上的開(kāi)放性性，因而很很難對(duì)有些些無(wú)關(guān)變量量進(jìn)行很理理想的控制制，樣本的的代表性也也不易控制制在具體的研研究中，究究竟采用實(shí)實(shí)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)還是采用用現(xiàn)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)，要根據(jù)據(jù)研究的具具體目的來(lái)來(lái)決定：對(duì)對(duì)那些不易易受場(chǎng)景影影響，又需需要對(duì)其過(guò)過(guò)程進(jìn)行嚴(yán)嚴(yán)密控制的的心理過(guò)程程，用實(shí)驗(yàn)驗(yàn)室實(shí)驗(yàn)的的方式比較較好；對(duì)于于兒童的某某些社會(huì)行行為的研究究應(yīng)用現(xiàn)場(chǎng)場(chǎng)實(shí)驗(yàn)法更更合適。羅森塔爾效效應(yīng)48InfluencesAttitudesandbeliefsoftheculture,andsub-cultureandfamilyunitswecomefromAlltheseshapeourimageofthechild,justastheyshapetheworkofthemajortheoristsOurbeliefswillinfluencewhatwemightfindusefulfromdifferenttheorists49ImagesofthechildDoviewchildrenas:SeekersofknowledgeOREmptyvesselsforustopourknowledgeinto?Doyouviewbabiesas:PeopleseekingrelationshipsORPeoplewhoneedtobetaughttorelate50Whathasinfluencedthewayyouviewchildren/babies?51OurimageofthechildinourculturehelpsustoformtheseanswersItisimportanttobeawareoftheimagesweworkwithRe-examinationofyourviewofthechildkeepstheseimagesrelevantandopentochangethroughoutourprofessionalcareers52Doyouvalueknowledgegainedthroughgroupworkmore(orless)thanknowledgegainedalone?Why????53MaingroupsoftheoriesMaturationist–AGessell,NChomskyBehaviourist–BSkinner,JWatson,IPavlovDevelopmentalInteractionists–UBronfenbrenner,JPiaget,LVygostky54WhichTheory?Inassessingtheoriesaskyourself:Howdoesthistheoryexplainbehaviour?Howdoesthistheoryhelpmetopredictbehaviour?Howwillthistheoryassistmeinapracticalsituation?55Throughoutthisunityouwillstudyfourmaintheorists:MaslowPiagetVygotskyErikson56MaslowAbrahamMaslowdevelopedatheorybasedonbasicneeds.Hebelieved:thatpeoplegenerallyhavethesamebasicneeds.thatinordertothriveanddevelopweneedtomeettheseneedsthattheneedtogrowanddevelop,tostriveforimprovementiswithinallofus

SelfActualisation(SelfrespectApproval)Esteem(Respect,approval)Love&Belonging(Family,Community,Friendship),Safety(security,protection)PhysicalNeeds(FoodSleepWater)57JeanPiagetTheoryonCognitiveDevelopmentConstructingKnowledgeSchemataAssimilationAccomodationConceptdevelopmentConservation58Piaget’sstagesofcognitivedevelopmentSensori-Motor–(0-2yrs)explorationusingsenses.Sensoryplayimportant(mouthing,sucking,banging,smellingandlooking).EgocentricPre-operational––(2––7yrs)languageandimaginationtoextendthinkingandunderstanding––lessegocentric59Concreteoperational––(7-11yrs)developskillsofthinkinglogicallyinavarietyofpracticalor‘concrete’situations.Moreorganisedthought(Categories)LogicalratherthanabstractthinkersFormaloperational(11+years)moreabstractargumentsanddiscussions.Broaderissuesoftheworldtakeamoreimportantrole.60LevVygostkyLanguageandCognition“Whatachildcandoinco-operationtoday,hecandoalonetomorrow.”Vygotsky(1967)SocialConstructivistTheoryHeavieremphasisthanPiagetontheimportanceofsocialinteractionandlanguageingrowthofthinking61LearningisaresultofsocialcontactandinteractionwithsignificantandfamiliarpeopleEmphasisedtheimportanceofgesturesofthepre-linguisticchild–bodymovementsshowbeginningsofsymbolicthoughtAndimportanceofinnerspeech–‘‘talkingthrough’aproblem(selftalk)62ZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD)TheZPDisabout"candowithhelp",notasapermanentstatebutasastagetowardsbeingabletodosomethingonyourown.Thekeyto"stretching"thelearneristoknowwhatisinthatperson'sZPD——whatcomesnext,forthem.‘Scaffolding’’–addingknowledgeandunderstanding.63ErikEriksonPsychosocialTheoryFocusonsocialandemotionaldevelopmentInfluencedbyFreudiantheoryHebelievedthatPeoplegenerallyhavethesamebasicneedsOurpersonalitydevelopsandchangesinresponsetotheseneedsDevelopmentproceedsinstagesthatmatchbiologicallifespanstagesEachstageischaracterisedbyacrisis––socialexpectationsMotivationtomeetthesechallengeswillvaryfromstagetostage64Erikson’sstages(8stagesinall––only4outlinedhere)1:TrustvsMistrust(infancy)–“willItrusttheworld?””Infantdevelopsprimarythensecondaryattachments.Infantbeginstotrustthatbasicneedswillbemet.Developmentoftrustimportanttofuturerelationshipsandemotionaldevelopment.652:Autonomyv’sshameanddoubt(toddlerhood)“canIdothisbymyself””Toddlerseeksapprovalfromadults.Improvedselfhelpskills–requiressupportandguidanceofcarersinorderforautonomytodevelop.663.InitiativevsGuilt(preschoolyears)“IswhatIdoandthinkOK?”Childsometimesoverstepslimits––experienceguilt.Childislearningsocialrulesandconsequencesforbreachofrules674.IndustryvsInferiority(schoolage)““CanImasterthisskill?”Learningandusingpro-socialskillsandbehaviour.Moresureofownabilitiesandbecomemoreindependent.PeeracceptanceisimportantFeelingsofinferiorityarecommonaschildseeksacceptanceandapproval–selfesteemlowersduringmiddlechildhoodTheoriesofChildDevelopmentJeanPiaget??LevVygotsky

AbrahamMaslow?B.F.Skinner?ErikErickson??HowardGardnerWhyStudyChild&ParentingDevelopmentTheories?Theorieshelppeople:Organizetheirideasaboutraisingchildren.Understandinfluencesonparenting.Discovermorethanonewaytointeractwithchildren.Analyzethebenefitsandconsequencesofusingmorethanonetheory.WhyStudytheSelectedTheories?Theselectedtheories:Havebeenpopularandinfluential.Representdifferentapproachestoparent-childinteraction.Offerhelpinthe“realworld”ofdailychild-rearing.Makegoodcommonsense.LevVygotsky-1896-1934MainpointsDevelopmentisprimarilydrivenbylanguage,socialcontextandadultguidance.KeyWordsZoneofproximaldevelopmentScaffoldingTheculturesinwhichchildrenareraisedandthewaysinwhichtheyinteractwithpeopleinfluencetheirintellectualdevelopment.Fromtheirculturalenvironments,childrenlearnvalues,beliefs,skills,andtraditionsthattheywilleventuallypassontotheirownchildren.Throughcooperativeplay,childrenlearntobehaveaccordingtotherulesoftheircultures.Learningisanactiveprocess.Learningisconstructed.Whatis:ZoneofProximalDevelopmentItisarangeoftasksthatachildcannotyetdoalonebutcanaccomplishwhenassistedbyamoreskilledpartner.Thereisazoneofproximaldevelopmentforeachtask.Whenlearnersareinthezone,theycanbenefitfromtheteacher’sassistance.Learnersdevelopatdifferentratessotheymaydifferintheirabilitytobenefitfrominstructions.Whatis:ScaffoldingAssistancethatallowsstudentstocompletetasksthattheyarenotabletocompleteindependently.Effectivescaffoldingisresponsivetostudents’needs.Inclassroom,teachers’providescaffoldingby:BreakingcontentintomanageablepiecesModelingskillsProvidepracticeandexampleswithpromptsLettinggowhenstudentsarereadyLifeisaseriesofstages.Eachindividualmustpassthrougheachstage.Thewayinwhichapersonhandleseachofthesestagesaffectstheperson’sidentityandself-concept.Thesepsychosocialstagesare:Trustvs.mistrust(birthto1year)Autonomyvs.shame&doubt(2to3years)Initiativevs.guilt(4to5years)Industryvs.inferiority(6to11years)Identityvs.roleconfusion(12to18years)Intimacyvs.isolation(youngadulthood)Generativityvs.stagnation(middleadulthood)Integrityvs.despair(olderadulthood)PsychosocialTheoryofHumanDevelopment––ErikEriksonStageAgeBasic

ConflictImportant

EventSummaryOral-sensoryBirthto12to18monthsTrustvs.MistrustFeedingTheinfantmustformafirstloving,trustingrelationshipwiththecaregiver,ordevelopasenseofmistrust.Muscular-Anal18months

to3yearsAutonomyvs.

Shame/DoubtToilet

trainingThechild'senergiesaredirectedtowardthedevelopmentofphysicalskill,includingwalking,grasping,andrectalsphinctercontrol.Thechildlearnscontrolbutmaydevelopshameanddoubtifnothandledwell.Locomotor3to6yearsInitiativevs.

GuiltIndependenceThechildcontinuestobecomemoreassertiveandtotakemoreinitiative,butmaybetooforceful,leadingtoguiltfeelings.Latency6to12yearsIndustryvs.InferioritySchoolThechildmustdealwithdemandstolearnnewskillsorriskasenseofinferiority,failureandincompetence.Adolescence12to18yearsIdentityvs.

RoleConfusionPeerrelationshipsTheteenagermustachieveasenseofidentityinoccupation,sexroles,politics,andreligion.YoungAdulthood19to40yearsIntimacyvs.

IsolationLoverelationshipsTheyoungadultmustdevelopintimaterelationshipsorsufferfeelingsofisolation.MiddleAdulthood40to65yearsGenerativityvs.StagnationParentingEachadultmustfindsomewaytosatisfyandsupportthenextgeneration.Maturity65todeathEgoIntegrityvs.DespairReflectiononandacceptanceofone'slifeTheculminationisasenseofoneselfasoneisandoffeelingfulfilled.Erikson’sPsychosocialTheoryofHumanDevelopmentAutonomyvs.Shame/DoubtTrustvs.MistrustInitiativevs.GuiltIndustryvs.InferiorityIdentityvs.RoleConfusionIntimacyvs.IsolationEgoIntegrityvs.DespairGenerativityvs.StagnationCritiqueofErikEriksonSupportersofthisEriksoniantheory,suggestthatthosebestequippedtoresolvethecrisisofearlyadulthoodarethosewhohavemostsuccessfullyresolvedthecrisisofadolescence.Ontheotherhand,Erikson'stheorymaybequestionedastowhetherhisstagesmustberegardedassequential,andonlyoccurringwithintheagerangeshesuggests.Thereisdebateastowhetherpeopleonlysearchforidentityduringtheadolescentyearsorifonestageneedstohappenbeforeotherstagescanbecompleted.TheoryofBehaviorism-B.FSkinner&othersBasedonLocke’stabularasa(“cleanslate”)idea,Skinnertheorizedthatachildisan“emptyorganism”thatis,anemptyvesselwaitingtobefilledthroughlearningexperiences.Anybehaviorcanbechangedthroughtheuseofpositiveandnegativereinforcement.Behaviorismisbasedoncause-and-effectrelationships.Pavlo'sdoggameClassicalConditioningPavlov'sDogsMajorelementsofbehaviorisminclude:PositiveandnegativereinforcementUseofstimulusandresponseModelingConditioning.IvanPavlovAlbertBanduraSkinnerBoxOperantConditioningTheoryofMultipleIntelligence

HowardGardnerHowardGardner’stheoryHowardGardnerdefinesintelligenceas"thecapacitytosolveproblemsortofashionproductsthatarevaluedinoneormoreculturalsetting"(Gardner&Hatch,1989).Usingbiologicalaswellasculturalresearch,heformulatedalistofsevenintelligences.Thisnewoutlookonintelligencediffersgreatlyfromthetraditionalviewthatusuallyrecognizesonlytwointelligences,verbalandmathematical.WhoisHowardGardner?HowardGardnerisapsychologistandProfessoratHarvardUniversity'sGraduateSchoolofEducation.Basedonhisstudyofmanypeople,Gardnerdevelopedthetheoryofmultipleintelligences.Gardnerdefinesintelligenceas“abilitytosolveproblemsortocreateproductswhicharevaluedinoneormoreculturalsettings.”AccordingtoGardner,8differenttypesofintelligencearedisplayedbyhumans.Gardner’sIntelligences:Logical-MathematicalIntelligenceconsistsoftheabilityto:detectpatternsreasondeductivelythinklogicallyThisintelligenceismostoftenassociatedwithscientificandmathematicalthinking.Famousexamples:AlbertEinstein,JohnDewey.LinguisticIntelligenceinvolveshavingamasteryoflanguageThisintelligenceincludestheabilitytoeffectivelymanipulatelanguagetoexpressoneselfrhetoricallyorpoetically.Italsoallowsonetouselanguageasameanstorememberinformation.Famousexamples:CharlesDickens,AbrahamLincoln,T.S.Eliot,SirWinstonChurchill.SpatialIntelligencegivesonetheabilitytomanipulateandcreatementalimagesinordertosolveproblems.Thisintelligenceisnotlimitedtovisualdomains--Gardnernotesthatspatialintelligenceisalsoformedinblindchildren.Famousexamples:Picasso,FrankLloydWrightMusicalIntelligenceencompassesthecapabilitytorecognizeandcomposemusicalpitches,tones,andrhythms.(Auditoryfunctionsarerequiredforapersontodevelopthisintelligenceinrelationtopitchandtone,butthesefunctionswouldnotbeneededfortheknowledgeofrhythm.)Famousexamples:Mozart,LeonardBernstein,RayCharles.Bodily-KinestheticIntelligenceistheabilitytouseone'smentalabilitiestocoordinateone'sownbodilymovements.Thisintelligencechallengesthepopularbeliefthatmentalandphysicalactivityareunrelated.Theabilitytouseyourbodyskillfullytosolveproblems,createproductsorpresentideasandemotions.Anabilityobviouslydisplayedforathleticpursuits,dancing,acting,artistically,orinbuildingandconstruction.Youcanincludesurgeonsinthiscategorybutmanypeoplewhoarephysicallytalented–"goodwiththeirhands"–don'trecognizethatthisformofintelligenceisofequalvaluetotheotherintelligences.Famousexamples:CharlieChaplin,MichaelJordan.InterpersonalIntelligenceTheabilitytoworkeffectivelywithotherstorelatetootherpeopledisplayempathyandunderstandingnoticetheirmotivationsandgoals.Thisisavitalhumanintelligencedisplayedbygoodteachers,facilitators,therapists,politicians,religiousleadersandsalespeople.Famousexamples:Gandhi,RonaldReagan,MotherTeresa,OprahWinfrey.IntrapersonalIntelligenceTheabilityforself-analysisandreflection–tobeableto:quietlycontemplateandassessone'saccomplishmentsreviewone'sbehaviorandinnermostfeelingsmakeplansandsetgoalsknowoneselfPhilosophers,counselors,andmanypeakperformersinallfieldsofendeavorhavethisformofintelligence.Famousexamples:Freud,EleanorRoosevelt,Plato.Naturalistintelligencedesignatesthehumanabilitytodiscriminateamonglivingthings(plants,animals)aswellassensitivitytootherfeaturesofthenaturalworld(clouds,rockconfigurations).tomakedistinctionsinthenaturalworldandtousethisabilityproductively––forexampleinhunting,farming,orbiologicalscience.Farmers,botanists,conservationists,biologists,environmentalistswouldalldisplayaspectsoftheintelligence.Famousexamples:CharlesDarwin,RachelCarson.Canwebemorethanone?Yes!Althoughtheintelligencesareanatomicallyseparatedfromeachother,Gardnerclaimsthattheeightintelligencesveryrarelyoperateindependently.Rather,theintelligencesareusedconcurrentlyandtypicallycomplementeachotherasindividualsdevelopskillsorsolveproblems.Forexample,adancercanexcelinhisartonlyifhe/shehasstrongmusicalintelligencetounderstandtherhythmandvariationsofthemusicbodily-kinestheticintelligencetoprovidehimwiththeagilityandcoordinationtocompletethemovementssuccessfullyinterpersonalintelligencetounderstandhowhecaninspireoremotionallymovehisaudiencethroughhismovementsThebehaviorofchildrenandthedevelopmentoftheirthinkingcanonlybeexplainedbytheinteractionofnature(intrinsicdevelopment)andnurture(extrinsicenvironmentalfactors).JeanPiaget-1896-1980Goalofcognitivedevelopment–BiologicalsurvivalCognitivedevelopmentasbiologicaladaptation–Adaptationofmentalconstructsfromexperiences–Learneras‘thelittlescientist’Knowledgeoriginatesfromtheenvironment–Assimilation+accommodationleadtoequilibrium–Cognitivedevelopmentinvolvesactiveselection,interpretation,andconstructionofknowledgeKeywordsCognitivelearningtheory;assimilate;symbolism;accommodate;egocentric;decentre;conservatism;activelearners;schemata;sensory-motor;stages;pre-operational;animism;moralrealism;concreteoperations;formaloperationsJeanPiaget(1896-1980)CognitiveDevelopmentTheoryTwoprocessesareessentialfordevelopment:AssimilationLearningtounderstandeventsorobjects,basedonexistingstructure.AccommodationExpandingunderstanding,basedonnewinformation.PiagetChildrenpassthroughspecificstagesastheydeveloptheirCognitiveDevelopmentskills:Sensorimotor––birth-2years––infantsdeveloptheirintellectPreoperational––2-7years––childrenbegintothinksymbolicallyandimaginativelyConcreteoperational––7-12years––childrenlearntothinklogicallyFormaloperational––12years––adulthood––adultsdevelopcriticalthinkingskillsMaslow’’sTheoryMaslow’’stheorymaintainsthatapersondoesnotfeelahigherneeduntiltheneedsofthecurrentlevelhavebeensatisfied.Maslow'sbasicneedsareasfollows:PhysiologicalNeedsFoodAirWaterClothingSexBasicHumanNeedsSafetyNeedsProtectionStabilityPainAvoidanceRoutine/OrderSafetyandSecuritySocialNeedsAffectionAcceptanceInclusionLoveandBelongingEsteemNeedsSelf-RespectSelf-EsteemRespectedbyOthersEsteemSelf-ActualizationAchievefullpotentialFulfillment階段StagesofGrowthandDevelopmentInfancyNeonateBirthto1monthInfancy1monthto1yearEarlyChildhoodToddler1-3yearsPreschool3-6yearsMiddleChildhoodSchoolage6to12yearsLateChildhoodAdolescent13yearstoapproximately18yearsPrinciplesofGrowthandDevelopmentGrowthisanorderlyprocess,occurringinsystematicfashion.Ratesandpatternsofgrowtharespecifictocertainpartsofthebody.Wideindividualdifferencesexistingrowthrates.Growthanddevelopmentareinfluencesbyareinfluencesbyamultiplefactors.PrinciplesContinuedDevelopmentproceedsfromthesimpletothecomplexandfromthegeneraltothespecific.Developmentoccursinacephalocaudalandaproximodistalprogression.Therearecriticalperiodsforgrowthanddevelopment.Ratesindevelopmentvary.Developmentcontinuesthroughouttheindividual'slifespan.GrowthPatternGrowthPatternsThechild’spatternofgrowthisinahead-to-toedirection,orcephalocaudal,andinaninwardtooutwardpatterncalledproximodistal.Whydevelopmentalassessment?Earlydetectionofdeviationinchild’spatternofdevelopmentSimpleandtimeefficientmechanismtoensureadequatesurveillanceofdevelopmentalprogressDomainsassessed:cognitive,motor,language,social/behavioralandadaptiveGrossMotorSkillsTheacquisitionofgrossmotorskillprecedesthedevelopmentoffinemotorskills.BothprocessesoccurinacephalocaudalfashionHeadcontrolprecedingarmandhandcontrolFollowedbylegandfootcontrol.GrossMotorDevelopmentNewborn:barelyabletolifthead6months:easilyliftshead,chestandupperabdomenandcanbearweightonarmsHeadControlNewbornAge6monthsSittingup2monthsold:needsassistance6monthsold:cansitaloneinthetripodposition8monthsold:cansitwithoutsupportandengageinplaySittingUpAge2monthsAge8monthsAmbulation9monthold:crawl1year:standindependentlyfromacrawlposition13monthold:walkandtoddlequickly15monthold:canrunAmbulation13montholdNineto12-monthsFineMotor-InfantNewbornhasverylittlecontrol.Objectswillbeinvoluntarilygraspedanddroppedwithoutnotice.6monthold:palmargrasp––usesentirehandtopickupanobject9monthold:pincergrasp––cangraspsmallobjectsusingthumbandforefingerSpeechMilestones1-2months:coos2-6months:laughsandsqueals8-9monthsbabbles:mama/dadaassounds10-12months:““mama/dadaspecific18-20months:20to30words––50%understoodbystrangers22-24months:twowordsentences,>50words,75%understoodbystrangers30-36months:almostallspeechunderstoodbystrangersHearingBAERhearingtestdoneatbirthAbilitytohearcorrelateswithabilityenunciatewordsproperlyAlwaysaskabouthistoryofotitismedia––earinfection,placementofPET––tubesinearEarlyreferraltoMDtoassessforpossiblefluidinears(effusion)RepeathearingscreeningtestSpeechtherapistasneededFineMotorDevelopment6-month-old12-month-oldRedFlagsininfantdevelopmentUnabletositalonebyage9monthsUnabletotransferobjectsfromhandtohandbyage1yearAbnormalpincergriporgraspbyage15monthsUnabletowalkaloneby18monthsFailuretospeakrecognizablewordsby2years.FineMotor-toddler1yearold:transferobjectsfromhandtohand2yearold:canholdacrayonandcolorverticalstrokesTurnthepageofabookBuildatowerofsixblocksFineMotor––OlderToddler3yearold:copyacircleandacross––buildusingsmallblocks4yearold:usescissors,colorwithintheborders5yearold:writesomelettersanddrawapersonwithbodypartsToddlerAdelePiliterri,ChildHealthNursing,LippincottToddlerSafetybecomesaproblemasthetoddlerbecomesmoremobile.Pilliterri,LippincottToddlersIssuesinparenting-toddlersStrangeranxiety––shoulddissipatebyage2??to3yearsTempertantrums:occurweeklyin50to80%ofchildren–peakincidence18months–mostdisappearbyage3Siblingrivalry:aggressivebehaviortowardsnewinfant:peakbetween1to2yearsbutmaybeprolongedindefinitelyThumbsuckingToiletTrainingPre-SchoolFinemotorandcognitiveabilitiesButtoningclothingHoldingacrayon/pencilBuildingwithsmallblocksUsingscissorsPlayingaboardgameHavechilddrawpictureofhimselfPre-schooltasksRedflags:preschoolInabilitytoperformself-caretasks,handwashingsimpledressing,daytimetoiletingLackofsocializationUnabletoplaywithotherchildrenAbletofollowdirectionsduringexamPerformanceevaluationofpre-schoolteacherforkindergartenreadinessPoolSafetySchool-AgeSchoolYears:finemotorWritingskillsimproveFinemotorisrefinedFinemotorwithmorefocusBuilding:models––legosSewingMusicalinstrumentPaintingTypingskillsTechnology:computersSchoolperformanceAskaboutfavoritesubjectHowtheyaredoinginschoolDotheylikeschoolByparentreport:anylearningdifficulties,attentionproblems,homeworkParentalexpectationsRedflags:schoolageSchoolfailureLackoffriendsSocialisolationAggressivebehavior:fights,firesetting,animalabuseSchoolAge:grossmotor8to10years:teamsportsAgeten:matchsporttothephysicalandemotionaldevelopmentSchoolAgeSchoolAge:cognitiveGreaterabilitytoco