CHAPTERI

INTRODUCTION

Intheprecedingdivisionsofthisworkthegroundhasbeensufficiently

clearedtoenableustoproceed,withconsiderableexplicitnessand

satisfaction,tothepracticaldetail:inotherwords,toattemptthe

tracingoutthatapplicationofthelawsofgeneraljusticewhichmaybest

conducetothegradualimprovementofmankind.

Ithasappearedthatanenquiryconcerningtheprinciplesandconductof

socialintercourseisthemostimportanttopicuponwhichthemindofman

canbeexercised;(1*)that,upontheseprinciples,wellorillconceived,

andthemannerinwhichtheyareadministered,thevicesandvirtuesof

individualsdepend;(2*)thatpoliticalinstitution,tobegood,musthave

constantrelationtotherulesofimmutablejustice;(3*)andthatthose

rules,uniformintheirnature,areequallyapplicabletothewholehuman

race.(4*)

Thedifferenttopicsofpoliticalinstitutioncannotperhapsbemore

perspicuouslydistributedthanunderthefourfollowingheads:provisions

forgeneraladministration;provisionsfortheintellectualandmoral

improvementofindividuals;provisionsfortheadministrationofcriminal

justice;andprovisionsfortheregulationofproperty.Undereachof

theseheadsitwillbeourbusiness,inproportionasweadheretothe

greatandcomprehensiveprinciplesalreadyestablished,rathertoclear

awayabusesthantorecommendfurtherandmorepreciseregulations,rather

tosimplifythantocomplicate.Aboveallweshouldnotforgetthat

governmentis,abstractedlytaken,anevil,anusurpationupontheprivate

judgementandindividualconscienceofmankind;andthat,howeverwemay

beobligedtoadmititasanecessaryevilforthepresent,itbehoves

us,asthefriendsofreasonandthehumanspecies,toadmitaslittle

ofitaspossible,andcarefullytoobserve,whether,inconsequenceof

thegradualilluminationofthehumanmind,thatlittlemaynothereafter

bediminished.

Andfirstwearetoconsiderthedifferentprovisionsthatmaybemade

forgeneraladministration;including,underthephrasegeneral

administration,allthatshallbefoundnecessary,ofwhathasusually

beendenominated,legislativeandexecutivepower.Legislationhas

alreadyappearedtobeatermnotapplicabletohumansociety.(5*)Men

cannotdomorethandeclareandinterpretlaw;norcantherebean

authoritysoparamountastohavetheprerogativeofmakingthattobe

lawwhichabstractandimmutablejusticehadnotmadetobelawpreviously

tothatinterposition.Butitmight,notwithstandingthis,befound

necessarythatthereshouldbeanauthorityempoweredtodeclarethose

generalprinciples,bywhichtheequityofthecommunitywillberegulated,

inparticularcasesuponwhichitmaybecompelledtodecide.Thequestion

concerningtherealityandextentofthisnecessity,itisproperto

reserveforafterconsiderations.(6*)Executivepowerconsistsoftwo

verydistinctparts:generaldeliberationsrelativetoparticular

emergencies,which,sofaraspracticabilityisconcerned,maybe

exercisedeitherbyoneindividualorabodyofindividuals,suchaspeace

andwar,taxation,(7*)andtheselectionofproperperiodsforconvoking

deliberativeassemblies:andparticularfunctions,suchasthoseof

financialdetail,orminutesuperintendence,whichcannotbeexercised

unlessbyoneorasmallnumberofpersons.

Inreviewingtheseseveralbranchesofauthority,andconsideringthe

personstowhomtheymaybemostproperlyconfided,wecannotperhapsdo

betterthanadopttheordinarydistributionofformsofgovernmentinto

monarchy,aristocracyanddemocracy.Undereachoftheseheadswemay

enquireintothemeritsoftheirrespectiveprinciples,firstabsolutely,

anduponthehypothesisoftheirstandingsinglyforthewhole

administration;andsecondly,inalimitedview,uponthesuppositionof

theirconstitutingonebranchonlyofthesystemofgovernment.Itis

usuallyalikeincidenttothemall,toconfidetheminuterbranchesof

executivedetailtoinferioragents.

Onethingmoreitisnecessarytopremise.Themeritsofeachofthethree

headsIhaveenumeratedaretobeconsiderednegatively.Thecorporate

dutiesofmankindaretheresultoftheirirregularitiesandfolliesin

theirindividualcapacity.Iftheyhadnoimperfection,orifmenwere

soconstituted,astobesufficiently,andsufficientlyearly,corrected

bypersuasionalone,societywouldceasefromitsfunctions.Of

consequence,ofthethreeformsofgovernment,andtheircompositions,

thatisthebestwhichshallleastimpedetheactivityandapplication

ofourintellectualpowers.Itwasintherecollectionofthistruththat

Ihavepreferredthetermpoliticalinstitutiontothatofgovernment,

theformerappearingtobesufficientlyexpressiveofthatrelativeform,

whateveritbe,intowhichindividualswouldfall,whentherewasnoneed

offorcetodirectthemintotheirproperchannel,andwerenorefractory

memberstocorrect.

NOTES:

1.BookI.

2.BookII,Chap.II.

3.BookI.,Chap.VI,VII.

4.BookIII,Chap.VII.BookII.

5.BookIII,Chap.V.

6.BookVII,Chap.VIII.

7.Istatethearticleoftaxationasabranchofexecutivegovernment,

sinceitisnot,likelaworthedeclarationoflaw,apromulgatingof

somegeneralprinciple,butisatemporaryregulationforsomeparticular

emergence.

CHAPTERII

OFEDUCATION,THEEDUCATIONOFAPRINCE

Firstthenofmonarchy;andwewillfirstsupposethesuccessiontothe

monarchytobehereditary.Inthiscasewehavetheadditionaladvantage

ofconsideringthisdistinguishedmortalwhoisthussetovertheheads

oftherestofhisspeciesfromtheperiodofhisbirth.

Theabstractideaofakingisofanextremelymomentousandextraordinary

nature;and,thoughtheideahas,bytheaccidentofeducation,been

renderedfamiliartousfromourinfancy,yetperhapsthemajorityof

readerscanrecollecttheperiodwhenitstruckthemwithastonishment,

andconfoundedtheirpowersofapprehension.Itbeingsufficiently

evidentthatsomespeciesofgovernmentwasnecessary,andthat

individualsmustconcedeapartofthatsacredandimportantprivilege

bywhicheachmanisconstitutedjudgeofhisownwordsandactions,for

thesakeofgeneralgood,itwasnextrequisitetoconsiderwhatexpedients

mightbesubstitutedintheroomofthisoriginalclaim.Oneofthese

expedientshasbeenmonarchy.Itwastheinterestofeachindividualthat

hisindividualityshouldbeinvadedasrarelyaspossible;thatno

invasionshouldbepermittedtoflowfromwantoncaprice,fromsinister

anddisingenuousviews,orfromtheinstigationofanger,partialityand

passion;andthatthisbank,severelylevieduponthepeculiumofeach

memberofthesociety,shouldbeadministeredwithfrugalityand

discretion.Itwastherefore,withoutdoubt,averyboldadventureto

committhispreciousdeposittothecustodyofasingleman.Ifwe

contemplatethehumanpowers,whetherofbodyormind,weshallfindthem

muchbettersuitedtothesuperintendenceofourprivateconcerns,and

totheadministeringoccasionalassistancetoothers,thantothe

acceptingtheformaltrust,ofsuperintendingtheaffairs,andwatching

forthehappinessofmillions.Ifwerecollectthephysicalandmoral

equalityofmankind,itwillappearaveryviolentusurpationuponthis

principletoplaceoneindividualatsovastanintervalfromtherest

ofhisspecies.Letusthenconsiderhowsuchpersonsareusuallyeducated,

ormaybeexpectedtobeeducated,andhowwelltheyarepreparedforthis

illustriousoffice.

Itisacommonopinion"Thatadversityistheschoolinwhichall

extraordinaryvirtuemustbeformed.HenrythefourthofFrance,and

ElizabethofEngland,experiencedalongseriesofcalamitiesbeforethey

wereelevatedtoathrone.Alfred,ofwhomtheobscurechroniclesofa

barbarousagerecordsuchsuperiorvirtues,passedthroughthe

vicissitudesofavagabondandafugitive.Eventhemixed,and,uponthe

whole,thevicious,yetaccomplished,charactersofFredericand

Alexanderwerenotformedwithouttheinterferenceofinjusticeand

persecution.，z

Thishypothesishoweverseemstohavebeenpushedtoofar.Itisnomore

reasonabletosupposethatvirtuecannotbematuredwithoutinjusticethan

tobelieve,whichhasbeenanotherprevailingopinion,thathuman

happinesscannotbesecuredwithoutimpostureanddeceit.(1*)Boththese

errorshaveacommonsource,adistrustoftheomnipotenceoftruth.If

theiradvocateshadreflectedmoredeeplyuponthenatureofthehuman

mind,theywouldhaveperceivedthatallourvoluntaryactionsare

judgementsoftheunderstanding,andthatactionsofthemostjudicious

andusefulnaturemustinfalliblyflowfromarealandgenuineconviction

oftruth.

But,thoughtheexaggeratedopinionherestated,oftheusefulnessof

adversity,beerroneous,itis,likemanyotherofourerrors,alliedto

importanttruth.Ifadversitybenotnecessary,itmustbeallowedthat

prosperityispernicious.Notagenuineandphilosophicalprosperity,

whichrequiresnomorethansoundhealthwithasoundintellect,the

capacityofprocuringforourselves,byamoderateandwellregulated

industry,themeansofsubsistence,virtueandwisdom:butprosperityas

itisusuallyunderstood,thatis,acompetenceprovidedforusbythe

capriceofhumaninstitution,invitingourbodiestoindolence,andour

mindstolethargy;andstillmoreprosperity,asitisunderstoodinthe

caseofnoblemenandprinces,thatis,asuperfluityofwealth,which

deprivesusofallintercoursewithourfellowmenuponequalterms,and

makesusprisonersofstate,gratifiedindeedwithbaublesandsplendour,

butshutoutfromtherealbenefitsofsociety,andtheperceptionoftruth.

Iftruthbesointrinsicallypowerfulastomakeadversityunnecessary

toexciteourattentiontoit,itisneverthelesscertainthatluxuryand

wealthhavethemostfataleffectsindistortingit.Ifitrequireno

foreignaidtoassistitsenergies,weoughthowevertobeuponourguard

againstprinciplesandsituationsthetendencyofwhichmaybeperpetually

tocounteractit.

Noristhisall.Oneofthemostessentialingredientsofvirtueis

fortitude.ItwastheplanofmanyoftheGrecianphilosophers,andmost

ofallofDiogenes,toshowtomankindhowverylimitedisthesupplythat

ournecessitiesrequire,andhowlittledependentourrealwelfareand

prosperityareuponthecapriceofothers.Amonginnumerableincidents

uponrecordthatillustratethisprinciple,asingleonemaysufficeto

suggesttoourmindsitsgeneralspirit.Diogeneshadaslavewhosename

wasMenas,andMenasthoughtproperuponsomeoccasiontoelope.'Ha!'

saidthephilosopher,'canMenaslivewithoutDiogenes,andcannot

DiogeneslivewithoutMenas?，Therecanbenolessonmoreimportantthan

thatwhichishereconveyed.Themanthatdoesnotknowhimselfnotto

beatthemercyofothermen,thatdoesnotfeelthatheisinvulnerable

toallthevicissitudesoffortune,isincapableofaconstantand

inflexiblevirtue.Hetowhomtherestofhisspeciescanreasonablylook

upwithconfidencemustbefirm,becausehismindisfilledwiththe

excellenceoftheobjecthepursues;andcheerful,becauseheknowsthat

itisoutofthepowerofeventstoinjurehim.Ifanyoneshouldchoose

toimaginethatthisideaofvirtueisstrainedtoohigh,yetallmust

allowthatnomancanbeentitledtoourconfidencewhotremblesatevery

wind,whocanendurenoadversity,andwhoseveryexistenceislinkedto

theartificialcharacterhesustains.Nothingcanmorereasonablyexcite

ourcontemptthanamanwho,ifhewereoncereducedtothegenuineand

simpleconditionofman,wouldbedriventodespair,andfindhimself

incapableofconsultingandprovidingforhisownsubsistence.Fortitude

isahabitofmindthatgrowsoutofasenseofourindependence.Ifthere

beamanwhodaresnoteventrusthisownimaginationwiththefancied

changeofhiscircumstances,hemustnecessarilybeeffeminate;

irresoluteandtemporizing.Hethatlovessensualityorostentation

betterthanvirtuemaybeentitledtoourpity,butamadmanonlywould

entrusttohisdisposalanythingthatwasdeartohim.

Again,theonlymeansbywhichtruthcanbecommunicatedtothehumanmind

isthroughtheinletofthesenses.Itisperhapsimpossiblethataman

shutupinacabinetcaneverbewise.Ifwewouldacquireknowledge,we

mustopenoureyes,andcontemplatetheuniverse.Tillweareacquainted

withthemeaningofterms,andthenatureoftheobjectsaroundus,we

cannotunderstandthepropositionsthatmaybeformedconcerningthem.

Tillweareacquaintedwiththenatureoftheobjectsaroundus,wecannot

comparethemwiththeprincipleswehaveformed,andunderstandthemodes

ofemployingthem.Thereareotherwaysofattainingwisdomandability

besidetheschoolofadversity,butthereisnowayofattainingthembut

throughthemediumofexperience.Thatis,experiencebringsinthe

materialswithwhichintellectworks;foritmustbegrantedthataman

oflimitedexperiencewilloftenbemorecapablethanhewhohasgone

throughthegreatestvarietyofscenes;orratherperhaps,thatoneman

maycollectmoreexperienceinasphereofafewmilessquarethananother

whohassailedroundtheworld.

Toconceivetrulythevalueofexperience,wemustrecollectthenumerous

improvementsthehumanmindhasreceived,andhowfaranenlightened

Europeandiffersfromasolitarysavage.Howevermultifariousarethese

improvements,therearebuttwowaysinwhichtheycanbeappropriated

byanyindividual;eitheratsecondhandbybooksandconversation,or

atfirsthandbyourownobservationsofmenandthings.Theimprovement

wereceiveinthefirstofthesemodesisunlimited;butitwillnotdo

alone.Wecannotunderstandbookstillwehaveseenthesubjectsofwhich

theytreat.

Hethatknowsthemindofmanmusthaveobserveditforhimself;hethat

knowsitmostintimatelymusthaveobserveditinitsgreatestvariety

ofsituations.Hemusthaveseenitwithoutdisguise,whennoexterior

situationputsacurbuponitspassions,andinducestheindividualto

exhibitastudied,notaspontaneouscharacter.Hemusthaveseenmenin

theirunguardedmoments,whentheeagernessoftemporaryresentmenttips

theirtonguewithfire,whentheyareanimatedanddilatedbyhope,when

theyaretorturedandwrungwithdespair,whenthesoulpoursoutits

inmostselfintothebosomofanequalandafriend.Lastly,hemusthimself

havebeenanactorinthescene,havehadhisownpassionsbroughtinto

play,haveknowntheanxietyofexpectationandthetransportofsuccess,

orhewillfeelandunderstandaboutasmuchofwhatheseesasmankind

ingeneralwouldofthetransactionsofthevitrifiedinhabitantsofthe

planetMercury,orthesalamandersthatliveinthesun.-Suchisthe

educationofthetruephilosopher,thegenuinepolitician,thefriendand

benefactorofhumankind.

Whatistheeducationofaprince?Itsfirstqualityisextremetenderness.

Thewindsofheavenarenotpermittedtoblowuponhim.Heisdressedand

undressedbyhislacqueysandvalets.Hiswantsarecarefullyanticipated;

hisdesires,withoutanyeffortofhis,profuselysupplied.Hishealth

isoftoomuchimportancetothecommunitytopermithimtoexertany

considerableefforteitherofbodyormind.Hemustnothearthevoice

ofreprimandorblame.Inallthingsitisfirstofalltoberemembered

thatheisaprince,thatis,somerareandpreciouscreature,butnot

ofhumankind.

Asheistheheirtoathrone,itisneverforgottenbythoseabouthim

thatconsiderableimportanceistobeannexedtohisfavourorhis

displeasure.Accordingly,theyneverexpressthemselvesinhispresence

franklyandnaturally,eitherrespectinghimorthemselves.Theyare

supportingapart.Theyplayunderamask.Theirownfortuneandemolument

isalwaysuppermostintheirminds,atthesametimethattheyareanxious

toappeargenerous,disinterestedandsincere.Allhiscapricesareto

becompliedwith.Allhisgratificationsaretobestudied,Theyfindhim

adepravedandsordidmortal;theyjudgeofhisappetitesandcapacities

bytheirown;andthegratificationstheyrecommendservetosinkhim

deeperinfollyandvice.

Whatistheresultofsuchaneducation?Havingneverexperienced

contradiction,theyoungprinceisarrogantandpresumptuous.Having

alwaysbeenaccustomedtotheslavesofnecessityortheslavesofchoice,

hedoesnotunderstandeventhemeaningofthewordfreedom.Histemper

isinsolent,andimpatientofparleyandexpostulation.Knowingnothing,

hebelieveshimselfsovereignlyinformed,andrunsheadlongintodanger,

notfromfirmnessandcourage,butfromthemostegregiouswillfulness

andvanity.LikePyrrhoamongtheancientphilosophers,ifhisattendants

wereatadistance,andhetrustedhimselfaloneintheopenair,hewould

perhapsberunoverbythenextcoach,orfalldownthefirstprecipice.

Hisviolenceandpresumptionarestrikinglycontrastedwiththeextreme

timidityofhisdisposition.Thefirstoppositionterrifieshim,thefirst

difficulty,seenandunderstood,appearsinsuperable.Hetremblesata

shadow,andattheverysemblanceofadversityisdissolvedintotears.

Ithasaccordinglybeenobservedthatprincesarecommonlysuperstitious

beyondtherateofordinarymortals.

Aboveall,simple,unqualifiedtruthisastrangertohisear.Iteither

neverapproaches;or,ifsounexpectedaguestshouldonceappear,itmeets

withsocoldareceptionastoaffordlittleencouragementtoasecond

visit.Thelongerhehasbeenaccustomedtofalsehoodandflattery,the

moregratingwillitsound.Thelongerhehasbeenaccustomedtofalsehood

andflattery,themoreterriblewillthetalkappeartohimtochangehis

tastes,anddiscardhisfavourites.Hewilleitherplaceablind

confidenceinallmen,or,havingdetectedtheinsincerityofthosewho

weremostagreeabletohim,willconcludethatallmenareknavishand

designing.Asaconsequenceofthislastopinion,hewillbecome

indifferenttomankind,andcalloustotheirsufferings,andwillbelieve

thateventhevirtuousareknavesunderacraftiermask.Suchisthe

educationofanindividualwhoisdestinedtosuperintendtheaffairs,

andwatchforthehappiness,ofmillions.

Inthispicturearecontainedthefeatureswhichmostobviouslyconstitute

theeducationofaprince,intotheconductofwhichnopersonofenergy

andvirtuehasbyaccidentbeenintroduced.Inreallifeitwillbe

variouslymodified,butthemajorityofthefeatures,unlessinrare

instances,willremainthesame.Innocasecantheeducationofafriend

andbenefactorofhumankind,assketchedinaprecedingpage,byany

speculativecontrivancebecommunicated.

Noristhereanydifficultyinaccountingfortheuniversalmiscarriage.

Thewisestpreceptor,thuscircumstanced,mustlabourunderinsuperable

disadvantages.Nosituationcanbesoartificialasthatofaprince,so

difficulttobeunderstoodbyhimwhooccupiesit,soirresistibly

propellingthemindtomistake.Thefirstideasitsuggestsareofa

tranquillizingandsoporificnature.Itfillshimwiththeopinionofhis

secretlypossessingsomeinherentadvantageovertherestofhisspecies,

bywhichheisformedtocommand,andtheytoobey.Ifyouassurehimof

thecontrary,youcanexpectonlyanimperfectandtemporarycredit;for

facts,when,asinthiscase,theyarecontinuallydeposingagainstyou,

speakalanguagemoreemphaticandintelligiblethanwords.Ifitwere

notashesupposes,whyshouldeveryonethatapproachesbeeagertoserve

him?Thesordidandselfishmotivesbywhichtheyarereallyactuated,

heisverylateindetecting.Itmayevenbedoubtedwhethertheindividual

whowasneverledtoputtheprofessionsofotherstothetestbyhisreal

wants,has,inanyinstance,beencompletelyawareofthelittlecredit

thatisusuallyduetothem.Aprincefindshimselfcourtedandadored

longbeforehecanhaveacquiredameritentitlinghimtosuchdistinctions.

Bywhatargumentscanyoupersuadehimlaboriouslytopursuewhatappears

socompletelysuperfluous?Howcanyouinducehimtobedissatisfiedwith

hispresentacquisitions,whileeveryotherpersonassureshimthathis

accomplishmentsareadmirable,andhismindamirrorofsagacity?Howwill

youpersuadehimwhofindsallhiswishesanticipatedtoengageinany

arduousundertaking,orproposeanydistantobjectforhisambition?

But,evenshouldyousucceedinthis,hispursuitsmaybeexpectedtobe

eithermischievousoruseless.Hisunderstandingisdistorted;andthe

basisofallmorality,therecollectionthatothermenarebeingsofthe

sameorderwithhimself,isextirpated.Itwouldbeunreasona