Archaeology

[Gr.,=studyofbeginnings],abranchofanthropologythatseekstodocumentandexplaincontinuityandchangeandsimilaritiesanddifferencesamonghumancultures.Archaeologistsworkwiththematerialremainsofcultures,pastandpresent,providingtheonlysourceofinformationavailableforpastnonliteratesocietiesandsupplementingwrittensourcesforhistoricalandcontemporarygroups.

HistoryofArchaeology

Thedisciplinehaditsoriginsinearlyeffortstocollectartisticmaterialsofextinctgroups,anendeavorthatcanbetracedbacktothe15thcent.inItalywhengrowinginterestinancientGreeceinspiredtheexcavationofGreeksculpture.Inthe18thcent.theprogressofGreekandRomanarchaeologywasadvancedbyJohannWinckelmannandEnnioViscontiandbyexcavationsatHerculaneumandPompeii;inthe19thcent.,bytheacquisitionoftheElginMarbles.ThestudyofancientculturesintheAegeanregionwasstimulatedbytheexcavationsofHeinrichSchliemannatTroy,andofArthurEvansatCrete.TheworkofMartinNilsson,AlanWace,andJohnPendleburywasalsosignificantinthisarea,andthedeciphermentoftheMinoanscriptbyMichaelVentrisraisednewspeculationsabouttheearlyAegeancultures.

ThefoundationsofEgyptology,aprolificbranchofclassicalarchaeologybecauseofthewealthofmaterialpreservedinthedryEgyptianclimate,werelaidbytherecoveryoftheRosettaStoneandtheworkofFrenchscholarswhoaccompaniedNapoleonBonapartetoEgypt.InvestigationsthathavereconstructedthelivesandartsofelitesegmentsofancientEgyptiansocietyandrewrittenEgyptianhistorywerecarriedoninthe19thcent.byKarlLepsius,AugusteMariette,andGastonMaspero,andinthe19thand20thcent.byW.M.FlindersPetrie,JamesBreasted,andothers.

InterestintheMiddleEastwasstimulatedbytheworkofEdwardRobinson(1794–1863)onthegeographyoftheBibleandbythedeciphermentofacuneiforminscriptionofDariusI,whichwascopied(1835)byHenryRawlinsonfromtheBehistunrockinIran.ArchaeologyinMesopotamiawasnotablyadvancedinthe19thcent.byJulesOppert,PaulBotta,andAustenLayardandinthe20thcent.byCharlesWoolley,HenriFrankfort,andSetonLloyd.ThediscoveryoftheDeadSeaScrolls,beginningin1947,arousednewinterestinbiblicalstudies.

InterestincomplexNewWorldcultureswasstimulatedbythepublicationbyJohnStephensofanaccountofhistravels(1839)inCentralAmerica,whichexcitedtheinterestofarchaeologistsintheMaya.Inthe19thcent.studiesbeganoftheToltecandtheAztecinMexicoandoftheIncainSouthAmerica.In1926thediscoveryofhumanculturalremainsassociatedwithextinctfaunanearFolsom,.,establishedthesubstantialdepthofprehistoryfortheNewWorld.

ModernArchaeology

Incontrasttotheantiquarianismofclassicalarchaeology,anthropologicalarchaeologytodayisconcernedwithculturehistory.,thechronologyofeventsandculturaltraditions)andtheexplanationofculturalprocesses.Avarietyofdifferentdatingtechniques,bothrelative.,stratigraphy)andabsolute.,radiocarbon,obsidianhydration,potassium-argon),areusedtoplaceeventsintime.Attemptsatexplainingevolutionaryprocessesunderlyingprehistoricremainsbeganwiththeconclusionadvancedin1832bytheDanisharchaeologistChristianThomsenthatculturesmaybedividedintostagesofprogressbasedontheprincipalmaterialsusedforweaponsandimplements.Histhree-agetheory(theStoneAge,BronzeAge,andIronAge)wasessentiallybasedonprehistoricmaterialsfromScandinaviaandFrance.

Concertedinvestigationsbeganinthemid-19thcent.withthestratigraphicexcavationofsuchremainsasthelakedwelling,barrow,andkitchenmidden.AtfirstthesequencesofculturechangeuncoveredinWesternEuropeweregeneralizedtoincludeallofworldhistory,butimprovedtechniquesoffieldexcavationandtheexpansionofarchaeologicaldiscoveriesinAfrica,Asia,andtheAmericaschallengedtheuniversalityofrigidclassifications.Technologicaltraditionsceasedtoberegardedasinevitableconcomitantsofspecificculturalstages.

Laterinterpretationsofprehistorichumanlifeemphasizeculturalresponsestochangingdemographicandenvironmentalconditions.ThusthePaleolithic,Mesolithic,andNeolithicperiodsareevaluatedintermsofsubsistencetechnologies,andexplanationsaresoughtforthecausesunderlyingthesetransitions.Advancesintherecoveryandanalysisofbotanicalremainshaveallowedinvestigatorstomodelchangesintheprehistoricenvironmentwithincreasingprecision,improvingtheaccuracyofsuchexplanations.Paleobotany,theanalysisofancientplantremains,andethnobotany,thestudyoftheculturalutilizationofplants,thereforeplayavitalroleinmodernarchaeology.Faunalanalysis,therecoveryandanalysisofanimalremainssuchasbone,alsoplaysanimportantpartinthestudyofprehistoricecologyandsubsistencepatterns.Thecarefulanalysisofbotanicalandfaunalmaterial,combinedwithadvancesintheanalysisofgeneticmaterial,haveledtothedetailedunderstandingoftheprocessofthedomesticationofplantsandanimalsinboththeOldandNewWorld.Contemporaryarchaeologistsarealsoconcernedwiththeemergenceofvariousformsofcomplexsocialorganization,includingchiefdoms,classstratification,andstates.Amongthemostimportantworkdoneinthemid-20thcent.wasthatofLouisandMaryLeakey,wholocatedtheskeletalremainsofhumansinEastAfricadatingbackmillionyears.Inrecentyears,anumberofarchaeologistshaveturnedfromtraditionalconcernsandhavemadeeffortstoreconstructideologicalelementsofextinct