--#-表4.9項(xiàng)目區(qū)土地整理效益綜合評分表項(xiàng)目區(qū)評價指標(biāo)-■-九臺農(nóng)安雙陽榆樹得分評分得分評分得分評分得分評分經(jīng)濟(jì)效益耕地面積0026.6873.09661.9997.19210011.6增加耕地收益1007.256.4054.06166.9044.81700整理耕地面積10011.60084.0999.75555.3036.415整理耕地收益6.3380.4561007.297.0356.98700項(xiàng)目區(qū)總產(chǎn)值63.1431.32695.632.0081002.100靜態(tài)投資回收期00501.05250.5251002.1靜態(tài)投資收益率100424.9250.99749.851.99400土地利用系數(shù)1000.926.0870.23543.4780.39100單產(chǎn)提咼率62.52.5251100400每單位農(nóng)地收益51.6132.06538.711.548100400總評30.04721.19541.76120.115社會效益新增耕地供養(yǎng)人數(shù)0026.4152.95862.2646.97410011.2項(xiàng)目區(qū)道路長度18.7150.842001004.588.283.973人均耕地面積增加量006.4350.297.4920.3371004.5人均國民生產(chǎn)值001002.287.6271.92870.8641.559項(xiàng)目區(qū)居民支持率1001.11001.11001.11001.1總評1.9426.54814.83922.332生態(tài)效益氣候變化1002.91002.91002.91002.9土地質(zhì)量變化1008.800504.400田塊規(guī)整率增加值1008.80084.2397.41355.5714.89總評20.52.914.717.79總效益分值52.88930.64371.3150.237由此表可以對長春市2006年四個土地整理項(xiàng)目的效益作出評價由表4-8可以看出四個項(xiàng)目區(qū)土地整理綜合效益大小依次為九臺項(xiàng)目區(qū)、雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)、榆樹項(xiàng)目區(qū)、農(nóng)安項(xiàng)目區(qū)。在長春市土地整理的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益方面，項(xiàng)目區(qū)是以平整現(xiàn)有耕地、增加耕地面積為主要目標(biāo)。其經(jīng)濟(jì)效益主要體現(xiàn)在農(nóng)地面積增加，農(nóng)民手中的耕地面積增加，農(nóng)民的收入水平提高，項(xiàng)目區(qū)的總產(chǎn)值提高。由表4-8可以看出四個項(xiàng)目區(qū)土地整理經(jīng)濟(jì)效益大小依次為雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)、九臺項(xiàng)目區(qū)、農(nóng)安項(xiàng)目區(qū)、榆樹項(xiàng)目區(qū)。在社會效益方面，項(xiàng)目區(qū)內(nèi)土地整理的效益表現(xiàn)在交通運(yùn)輸能力的提高，務(wù)農(nóng)人數(shù)的減少和人均國民生產(chǎn)總值的提高。由表4-8可以看出四個項(xiàng)目區(qū)土地整理社會效益大小依次為榆樹項(xiàng)目區(qū)、雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)、農(nóng)安項(xiàng)目區(qū)、九臺項(xiàng)目區(qū)。在生態(tài)效益方面，項(xiàng)目區(qū)主要是以提高土層的厚度，提高灌排能力為主。由表4-8可以看出四個項(xiàng)目區(qū)土地整理生態(tài)效益大小依次為九臺項(xiàng)目區(qū)、雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)、榆樹項(xiàng)目區(qū)、農(nóng)安項(xiàng)目區(qū)。從總體上來說，長春市的土地整理項(xiàng)目在增加耕地面積，改善生產(chǎn)環(huán)境方面取得了相當(dāng)大的成果，為長春農(nóng)業(yè)以后的發(fā)展提供了一個廣闊的空間。但是，其土地整理項(xiàng)目的目標(biāo)過于單一，主要以增加耕地為主，生產(chǎn)結(jié)構(gòu)的搭配，生態(tài)環(huán)境保護(hù)等方面做的還比較少。這也同時說明，長春縣在土地整理方面還有很大的發(fā)展?jié)摿?，在以后的土地整理工作中?yīng)當(dāng)多注重綜合治理，全面發(fā)展。結(jié)論本文主要研究了土地整理效益評價的內(nèi)容及土地整理效益評價體系在長春市2006年土地整理效益評價中的應(yīng)用，旨在通過一套科學(xué)、系統(tǒng)、實(shí)用的評價指標(biāo)體系，更好、更科學(xué)地評價長春市2006年土地整理項(xiàng)目的效益。為今后的土地整理決策，評價提供可定量比較的資料數(shù)據(jù)，方便土地整理工作的進(jìn)行。通過研究分析，得出的主要結(jié)論有：通過將所建立的指標(biāo)體系應(yīng)用于長春市土地整理項(xiàng)目的實(shí)踐，可對幾個項(xiàng)目進(jìn)行橫向?qū)Ρ?，其中綜合效益大小依次為九臺項(xiàng)目區(qū)、雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)、榆樹項(xiàng)目區(qū)、農(nóng)安項(xiàng)目區(qū)；經(jīng)濟(jì)效益大小依次為雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)、九臺項(xiàng)目區(qū)、農(nóng)安項(xiàng)目區(qū)、榆樹項(xiàng)目區(qū)；社會效益大小依次為榆樹項(xiàng)目區(qū)、雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)、農(nóng)安項(xiàng)目區(qū)、九臺項(xiàng)目區(qū)；生態(tài)效益大小依次為九臺項(xiàng)目區(qū)、雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)、榆樹項(xiàng)目區(qū)、農(nóng)安項(xiàng)目區(qū)。雙陽項(xiàng)目區(qū)接近市區(qū)，所以土地整理潛力相對較小。雖然投資量最大，有最大的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益，但產(chǎn)生的綜合效益卻不是最好。反之，其他項(xiàng)目區(qū)的整理潛力較大，故與雙陽項(xiàng)目相比有較高的投資、效益比。尤其是九臺項(xiàng)目，投資最少卻獲得了最大的綜合效益和生態(tài)效益，經(jīng)濟(jì)效益也很突出，值得其他項(xiàng)目借鑒、學(xué)習(xí)。針對土地整理項(xiàng)目中目標(biāo)多，可量化的指標(biāo)少的特點(diǎn)本文采用了層次分析法，利用了層次分析法可用較少的定量信息使決策的思維過程數(shù)學(xué)化，便于為多目標(biāo)、多準(zhǔn)則的復(fù)雜問題提供簡便的決策的特點(diǎn)，取得令人滿意的評價結(jié)果?？梢?，在土地整理效益評價中是一種科學(xué)、有效的方法，可以在以后的項(xiàng)目中推廣使用。由于作者的知識和能力的限制，本研究只是初步的，還不夠全面深入。在數(shù)據(jù)處理中只采用了極值標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化和多因素求和法等基本方法，尚有許多內(nèi)容還值得進(jìn)一步研究討論和豐富完善。致謝本文是筆者在參與長春市2006年土地整理項(xiàng)目效益評價的基礎(chǔ)上完成的,共歷時三個月,最終于六月初圓滿完成定稿。在整個過程中,得到了很多老師及同學(xué)的支持和幫助,在此一一道謝。在論文的選題、寫作及修改過程中,我的指導(dǎo)老師王建國老師給與了極大的幫助和悉心的指導(dǎo),加深了我對層次分析法的理解和掌握，同時也對土地整理有了更全面的認(rèn)識。王建國老師在工作中認(rèn)真、嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)闹螌W(xué)態(tài)度和和藹、負(fù)責(zé)的育人方式讓我受益匪淺，在此表示衷心的謝意。感謝長春市國土局土地整理中心的佟月強(qiáng)主任在生產(chǎn)實(shí)習(xí)工作過程中給與我的的幫助和指點(diǎn),使我較全面地了解了土地整理的概況及實(shí)施過程，并能榮幸的參與長春市2006年土地整理項(xiàng)目綜合效益的評估,為論文的寫作奠定了基礎(chǔ)。最后,對在論文資料搜集過程中給與我指點(diǎn)和幫助的董會和老師及其他給與我?guī)椭睦蠋熀屯瑢W(xué)表示感謝。參考文獻(xiàn):［1］王軍、余莉、羅明?土地整理研究綜述［J］.地域研究與開發(fā)，2003.22(2)：9［2］姜愛林，姜志德?論土地整理概念的科學(xué)界定［J］.地域研究與開發(fā)，1998(1)：3.［3］國土資源部土地整理中心?土地開發(fā)整理標(biāo)準(zhǔn)［S］.北京：中國計劃出版社，2000.2［4］楊慶媛、涂建軍、廖和平、周寶同等.國外土地整理：性質(zhì)、研究領(lǐng)域及借鑒.國外合作與借鑒，2002,6：49-520［5］WilliamA,Doebel.LandReadjustment［M］.HeathandCompany,1982.85-87.［6］FAO.Aframeworkforlandevaluation［J］.FAOSoilsBulletin32.Rome,79p,1976.［7］陳佑啟，PeterHverburg，徐斌.中國土地利用變化及其影響的空間建模分析［T］.地理科學(xué)進(jìn)展，2000,19(2).［8］王萬茂?十地整理的產(chǎn)生、內(nèi)容和效益日［J］.南京土地，1997(3).［9］王蓮芬.層次分析法引論［M］.北京：中國人民大學(xué)出版社,1990.［10］劉來福，曾文藝編著?數(shù)學(xué)模型與數(shù)學(xué)建模［M］.北京：北京師范大學(xué)出版社,1997,74-87.［11］徐澤水.AHP中兩類標(biāo)度的關(guān)系研究［J］?系統(tǒng)工程理論與實(shí)踐,1999,19(7)：97-101.［12］魏毅強(qiáng)，劉進(jìn)生,王緒柱?不確定型AHP中判斷矩陣的一致性概念及權(quán)重J］?系統(tǒng)工程理論與實(shí)踐,1994,14(4)：16-22.［13］長春市國土資源局土地整理中心.長春市2006年度土地整理項(xiàng)目綜合效益評價分析報告［R］.［長春市］:［長春市國土資源局土地整理中心］,2008,9,8.［14］九臺市國土資源局土地整理中心.2006年度九臺市城子街鎮(zhèn)等七個土地整理項(xiàng)目效綜合效益評價.［R］.［九臺市］:［九臺市國土資源局土地整理中心］,2007,10,20.［15］農(nóng)安縣國土資源局土地整理中心.農(nóng)安縣2006年度新農(nóng)鄉(xiāng)等三鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)土地整理項(xiàng)目效益綜合評價.［R］.［農(nóng)安縣］:［農(nóng)安縣國土資源局土地整理中心］,2008.5,12.［16］長春市雙陽區(qū)國土資源局土地整理中心.長春市雙陽區(qū)2006年度市級土地整理項(xiàng)目實(shí)施后綜合效益評價分析報告.［R］.［長春市雙陽區(qū)］:［長春市雙陽區(qū)國土資源局土地整理中心］,2008,5,13.［17］榆樹市國土資源局土地整理中心.2006年度國家投資長春市級土地整理項(xiàng)目榆樹市新莊鎮(zhèn)、保壽鎮(zhèn)土地整理項(xiàng)目效益分析報告.［R］.［榆樹市］:［榆樹市國土資源局土地整理中心］,2008,1,14.WHATISLANDCONSOLIDATIONLandconsolidationissometimesincorrectlyinterpretedtobeonlythesimplereallocationofparcelstoremoveeffectsoffragmentation.Inreality,landconsolidationhasbeenassociatedwithbroadersocialandeconomicreformsfromthetimeofitsearliestapplicationsinWesternEurope.ThefirstconsolidationinitiativesofDenmarkinthe1750swerepartofaprofoundsocialreformtofreepeoplefromobligationstonoblelandlordsbyestablishingprivately-ownedfamilyfarms.Theconsolidationoffragmentedholdingsdidresultinimprovedagriculturalproductivitybutthiswasnottheonlyobjectiveofthesereforms.Thischapterillustratesthewiderangeofruraldevelopmentobjectives,rangingfromagriculturalimprovementtovillagerenewalandlandscapedevelopmentandprotection,whichcanbeaddressedthroughlandconsolidationprojects.Itdescribesvariouslandconsolidationapproachesandconcludeswithanoverviewofconditionsthatshouldbeputinplacebeforelandconsolidationprojectscanbeundertaken.ScopeoflandconsolidationschemesLandconsolidationhasalwaysbeenregardedasaninstrumentorentrypointforruraldevelopment.Earlyconceptsofruraldevelopmentwerevirtuallythesameasagriculturaldevelopmentbecauseofthepredominantroleofagricultureinruralareasatthetime.Improvingtheagrarianstructurewasviewedasbeingidenticaltomaintainingthesocialviabilityinruralareas;whatwasgoodforthefarmerswasgoodforruralareas.Anoverallobjectiveofearlyprojectswasthustoincreasethenetincomefromlandholdingsbyincreasingthevolumeofproductionanddecreasingitscosts.Withthisfocusonagriculturaldevelopment,theseprojectsservedtoconsolidateparcelsandenlargeholdingsandincludedprovisionssuchasirrigationanddrainageinfrastructuretoimprovewatermanagement,constructionofruralroads,landlevelling,soilimprovementmeasuresandchangestolandusesuchasconvertingagriculturallyinferiorlandintoforestlandorwetlands.Suchagriculturalimprovementsarestillessentialbutruralspaceisnownolongerregardedasoneofagriculturalproductionalone.Conceptsofruraldevelopmenthavebecomemuchbroaderandhaveexpandedtoincludeincreasedenvironmentalawarenessandawiderangeofnonagriculturalapplications.Theemphasisoflandconsolidationprojectshasshiftedfromafocusonrestructuringagriculturetooneofachievingmoreefficientmultipleuseofruralspacebybalancingtheinterestsofagriculture,landscape,natureconservation,recreationandtransportation,especiallywhenlandisrequiredfortheconstructionofmajorroads.Environmentalconditionsarebeinggivenincreasingpriority.Roadsarebeingconstructedtosuitthelandscape.Waterbodiesarebeingrestored,oftenwithbufferzones.Landconsolidationprojectsarealsousedfortheprotectionofwetlandsandtochangelandusepatternsespeciallyinareasendangeredbyfrequentfloodsorsoilerosion.Landconsolidationnowencompassesactivitiesofvillagerenewal.Projectsincludeprovidingadequatelandfornewhousesandworkplacestoimprovelivingandworkingconditions.Alongwiththechangingruraleconomy,buildingspreviouslyusedforagriculturearerenovatedandconvertedtoothersocialandcommercialuses.Inlinewithotherchangesintheconceptofruraldevelopment,landconsolidationnowplacesincreasingimportanceongenderinclusion,participatoryapproachesandtheuseofmediationandalternativedisputeresolutioninresolvingconflicts.Landconsolidationprojectshavealsoservedtomodernizetenurearrangementsbyeliminatingoutdatedrightsofuse,includingsomerightsofaccess,grazing,hay-making,timber-felling,fishingandboating,andtheextractionofpeat,clayandsand.Inearlyconsolidationprojectstheresettlementoffarmerswasoftenconsideredimportant.Familyfarmsteads,originallyplacedinoldestablishedvillages,wereresettledattheexternalperimeteroftheconsolidationprojectarea.Asaccesstomotorvehiclesbecamemorewidelyavailable,travellingfromvillagetofieldwaseasierandmodernvillagesbecameviewedasmoresuitableforretainingtheruralpopulationthanisolatedfarmsteads.Insomecases,farmingfamiliesweremovedfromcongestedareastomoredistantzones,oftenwithconsiderablereluctance.Suchresettlementsarelesslikelytobeafeatureoflandconsolidationintransitioncountriessinceruralareasarenotoverlycongestedand,incontrast,theirpopulationsaredeclining.However,theremaybeoccasionswherefarmersspendmoretimetravellingbetweenfieldsthanworkingthelandandresettlementmaybeasolutioniffamiliesarewillingtorelocate.ApproachestolandconsolidationThemosteffectiveconsolidationinstrumentofruraldevelopmentiscomprehensivelandconsolidationbutattimesotherapproachessuchassimplifiedconsolidation,voluntarygroupconsolidation,andindividualconsolidationinitiativescanbringbenefits.Thissectionprovidesanoverviewofthesedifferentapproaches.3.10Comprehensivelandconsolidationincludesthere-allocationofparcelstogetherwithabroadrangeofothermeasurestopromoteruraldevelopment.Examplesofsuchactivitiesincludevillagerenewal,supporttocommunity-basedagro-processing,constructionofruralroads,constructionandrehabilitationofirrigationanddrainagesystems,erosioncontrolmeasures,environmentalprotectionandimprovementsincludingthedesignationofnaturereserves,andthecreationofsocialinfrastructureincludingsportsgroundsandotherpublicfacilities.Proceduresforlandconsolidationprojectsvaryfromonecountrytoanotherbuttheygenerallyinvolvetheinitiationoftheproject,designoftheproject,inventoryofexistinglandrightsandlandvalues,elaborationofthedetailedconsolidationplanshowingthenewparcellayout,implementationoftheplan,andfinallyaconcludingphaseinwhichfinalrecordsareproduced.Box3liststypicalsteps.BOX3STEPSINCOMPREHENSIVELANDCONSOLIDATIONInitiationofthelandconsolidationproject.Requestforinitiationofaproject.Analysisofthesituationandidentificationofwhatisneededandwanted.Preparationofaninitialconceptplanthatstatestheaimsoftheproposedprojectandapproximateestimatesofcostsandsourcesoffinancing.Approvaloftherequestbyparticipantsandthestate.Formationofalocalmanagementteamwithrepresentationfromthecommunity.Designoftheproject.Selectionofconsultantstodesigntheproject.Precisedefinitionoftheareaandscopeoftheproject.Preparationofcost-estimateandschedulefortheproject.Evaluationofprojectedcostsandbenefits.Preparationofcost-sharingformula.Inventoryoftheexistingsituation.Identificationoradjudicationofboundariesandthelegalstatusofparcels,includingleaserights,mortgages,andeasementsorservitudes.Delimitationofimportantenvironmentalareas.Determinationofthevalueofparcels.Handlingofobjectionsrelatedtoboundaries,ownershipandvaluations.Elaborationofthedetailedlandconsolidationplan.Preparationofthedraftconsolidationplanshowingthenewparcellayout,locationofnewroadsandotherpublicfacilities,andidentifyingthoseroadsandfacilitieswhichwillberemoved.Presentationofseveralplanalternativeswithcost-benefitandenvironmentalimpactassessments.Reviewoftheoptionsforconsolidationbyparticipants.Preparationofthefinaldetailedconsolidationplantoaccommodatecommentsofparticipants.Handlingofobjections.Approvalofthedetailedconsolidationplan.Implementationofthedetailedconsolidationplan.Selectionofcontractorsforconstructionworks,etc.Constructionofpublicworks(agriculturalimprovements,levelling,drainage,newroadswithbridgesandculverts,etc.)Surveyofnewboundariesontheground.Concludingphase.Workingoutcompensationandapportionmentofcosts.Finalupdatingofthecadastralmap.Issuingandregistrationofnewtitles.Theallocationofresponsibilitiesforcarryingoutthesestepsalsovariesbetweenjurisdictions.Thereisusuallyacleardivisionbetweenresponsibilityforoverallsupervision,controlandmonitoringfunctions,andresponsibilityforimplementation.Theresponsibilitiesforthesupervisingagencyshouldbedefinedinlegislation.Oneofthefirstconsiderationsinproposingalandconsolidationpilotprojectisdeterminingtherolesandresponsibilitiesofthevariousparties.Thismatterisfurtherelaboratedinchapter4.ComprehensivelandconsolidationprojectsusuallyhaveextensivepublicworksandsotheyrequiretheparticipationofalargenumberofcentralgovernmentagenciessuchastheMinistryofAgriculture,MinistryofJustice,Cadastreoffices,Registryoffices,MinistryofPublicWorks,MinistryofEnvironment,MinistryofTransportationandMinistryofRuralDevelopment.Withthetrendtowardsdecentralization,projectsincreasinglyinvolvelocalandregionalgovernments,municipalities,waterboardsorwaterassociations.Thesebodiesareusuallypreparedtoplayactiverolesandtocoverpartofthecosts.Theparticipationoffarmers'groupsandotherrepresentativesofcivilsocietyhavealwaysbeenconsiderednecessarybut,alongwiththeimportanceattributedtoparticipatorydevelopment,theirinvolvementisbecominggreaterandisoccurringattheearlieststagesoftheprocess.Comprehensivelandconsolidationprojectsintroducemajorchangesthroughouttheprojectsite,andtheygenerallyrequiretheparticipationofallownersintheprojectarea.Inmanycountrieslandownerscanbedrawnintoaprojectagainsttheirwill.Peoplemayberequiredtoparticipateeveniftheyopposetheprojectaslongastheywillnotloseasaresultofit.Thesuccessofaprojectthusdependstoagreatextentontheinitialstepstakentoobtainthesupportandcooperationoffarmersandotherstakeholderswhowouldbeaffectedbytheproject.Informationandcommunicationisessential.Peoplemustunderstandhowtheywillbenefitfromtheprojectandhowthechangeswillimpactonthem.Providinginformationonthefinancingoftheproject,includingwhowillcontributetofinancing,isimportantasitinfluencesopinionsoffarmers.Providinginformationonthebenefitsoftheprojectisequallyimportant.Failuretocommunicateeffectivelyresultsinmisunderstandingandevenmisleadingrumours.Negativeviewsthatareneedlesslycausedusuallyresultinmoredifficultnegotiations,delaysandhigherimplementationcosts.Informationmustbetailoredtotheknowledgeandattitudesofdifferentgroupsofstakeholderssuchasfarmersandotherresidentsofthearea,andpoliticiansatthelocal,regionalandnationallevel.Becausetherearesomanycompetinginterestsofthevariousstakeholders,objectionsmayberaisedregardingtheinitialinventoryofownership,boundariesandvaluesofparcels,andinthepreparationofthedetailedconsolidationplanshowingthere-allocationofparcels.Theroleofmediationinresolvingsomeofthesedisputesisbecomingincreasinglyimportant.Atraditionalprinciplehasbeenthatanownershouldnotbeworseoffafterconsolidationthanbeforeit.Projectsoftenaimatensuringthatanowner'sholdingafterconsolidationisequalinvaluetotheoriginalholding;ifthevalueoftheholdingissmallerafterconsolidation,equivalencycanbeachievedbypayingfinancialcompensation.Fromoneperspective,ifafarmerreceivedpoorerqualitylandafterconsolidation,theamountoflandallocatedshouldbesuitablylargerthantheoriginalholdingtoensureequivalency.Thedevelopmentoftransparentrulesdefiningthenaturalyieldpotentialoflandcanbeimportantindefiningvalues.However,soilqualityisnottheonlyfactorinvaluationandthevalueofaparcelcanbeaffectedbyitspositionrelativetootherparcels,roads,farmbuildingsandhomesteads.“Equalvalue”isthusnotonlyaquestionofsoilvaluesbutincludesallfactorsthathaveasubstantialimpactontheuseoftheland.Theprincipleofequivalencymaybedifficulttoapplyinpractice,particularlywhentopographicconditionslimitthearrangementofnewparcels.Evenwherelandisnotirrigated,variationsinwaterconditionsandsuppliescanhaveaconsiderableinfluenceonthelocationoffarmsandthearrangementofparcels.Theexistenceofvinesandfruittreesfurtheraddstothecomplicationsofensuringequivalency.Thesevaluationproblemsareusuallyovercomebyincludingfarmersrespectedbycommunitymembersinthelandvaluationteamsorcommitteesalongwithvaluationexperts.Insteadofmerelymaintainingthesamevalueafteraproject,landconsolidationofferstheopportunityforsomeownerstoenlargetheirholdings.Thismaybedoneasotherfarmerschoosetoexitfromagriculturalactivities.Insomesystems,afarmerparticipatinginaprojectmaybeboughtoutcompletelyorpartiallytoprovideadditionallandforconsolidationpurposes.Landbanksarealsousedtoallowfarmerstoincreasetheirholdingsandtocoverrequestsforlandforpublicfacilitiessuchasnewroads,recreationalsitesandecologicalprotectionareas.Thetransferofstatelandreservestoalandbankshouldbeaddressedinanationallandconsolidationstrategy.Privatizationoflandcouldtakeplacethroughlandconsolidationprojectsandalandbankcouldbuylandinotherareasforspecificpurposesoffutureprojectsandtoprovidealternativelandforcompensationforlandusedforpublicfacilities,etc.Somesystemsplacelimitsorrestrictionsonrightsduringtheproject.Forexample,ownersandtenantsmaynotbeallowedtomakechangeswhichaffectthepropertyvalueswithoutauthorizationafterthevaluationinventoryhasstarted.Ensuringthattheprojectiscost-effectiveiscrucial.Geographicinformationsystemsandsatellitepositioningsystemsarenowroutinelyusedtoreducetimeandcostsofsurveyingandplanning.Severalcountrieshavedevelopedsemi-automatedsystemsforuseindesigningthenewlayoutofreallocatedparcels.Projectmanagementisimportantinorderfortheprojecttokeeptobudgetedcostsandthetimeschedule,tomaintainrapportwithparticipants,andtoensurethelegitimacyofalldecisionsandactions.Technicalmanagementskillsarealsoimportantashugeamountsofdataarecollectedandused.3.25Simplifiedlandconsolidation.Somecountrieshaveintroducedsimplifiedversionsofconsolidation.Simplifiedlandconsolidationoptimizesconditionsintheagriculturalsectorthroughthere-allocationorexchangeofparcels,andtheprovisionofadditionallandsfromlandbanks.Thesesimplifiedprojectsareoftencombinedwiththerehabilitationofinfrastructureandsometimestheprovisionofminorfacilities.Theydonotincludetheconstructionofmajorpublicworks,buttheycanprovidetheframeworkfortheirconstructionatalaterstage.Proceduresforsimplifiedlandconsolidationprojectstendtofollowthoseofcomprehensiveprojectsbutsomeoftherequirementsmayberelaxed.3.26Voluntarygroupconsolidation.Somecountriesprovideformutualagreementwithnoelementofcompulsion.Asconsolidationisentirelyvoluntary,allparticipantsmustagreefullywiththeproposedproject.Asaresult,voluntaryprojectstendtobesmall,andvoluntaryconsolidationtendstobebestsuitedtoaddresssmallandlocalisedproblems.Insomecountries,voluntaryprojectsusuallyhavefewerthantenparticipantsbutinDenmarkalmostalllandconsolidationprojectsarecarriedoutinacompletelyvoluntaryprocessandaretypicallybasedonnegotiationswithabout50landowners,althoughsomeprojectshaveinvolvedabout100participants.3.27Individualconsolidation.Consolidationofholdingscantakeplaceonaninformalandsporadicbasis.Thestateisnotdirectlyinvolvedandsotheseinitiativesdonotincludetheprovisionofpublicfacilities.However,thestatecanplayasignificantroleinencouragingconsolidationsthatimproveagriculturebypromotinginstrumentssuchasjointlanduseagreements,leasingandretirementschemes.Chapter5providesmoreinformationonhowthestatecanprovideasupportiveenvironmenttoencouragetransactions.Preconditions3.28Anumberofconditionsshouldbeinplacebeforealandconsolidationprojectcanbeundertaken.Stakeholdersshouldbewillingtoparticipateactivelyinthedecision-makingprocessofaproject.Theprocessshouldbedemand-drivenandaprojectsitemustbeidentifiedwherelocalcitizensandcommunityauthoritiesareinterestedinlandconsolidation.Fortheprojecttobemosteffective,reallocationoflandparcelswillneedtobeconsistentwiththeruraldevelopmentandagriculturalsectorstrategy,andtheprotectionofnaturalresources.Alandbankisveryimportantinacomprehensivelandconsolidationprogrammerbutitshouldnotbeconsideredtobeaprerequisiteforapilotproject.However,thesiteselectedforthepilotprojectshouldhaveadequatesuppliesoflandownedbythestateorlocalgovernmentthatcanbeusedforexchanges,toenlargeholdingsandtolocatepublicfacilities.Whilespecificlandconsolidationlegislationmaynotbeneededforapilotproject,appropriatelegislationmustexisttoprovidealegalbasisfortheproject.Theseconditionsmaynotexistandsomayhavetobedeveloped.Chapter4describesinmoredetailwhatwouldneedtobeinplaceforapilotproject.什么是土地整理土地整理，常常被錯誤地解釋為：整合，歸并土地，以消除分割地塊帶來的不利影響。而事實(shí)上，土地整理最早在西歐應(yīng)用時，就已經(jīng)與廣泛的社會和經(jīng)濟(jì)改革聯(lián)系得到了一起。土地整理是1750年在丹麥第一次提出的。作為當(dāng)時的一場深刻的社會改革的一部分，其目的是使人們擺脫地主的勞役以建立私人擁有的家庭農(nóng)場。當(dāng)時的土地整理意在提高農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)效率，但是這不是唯一的目標(biāo)。本章拓展了土地整理的內(nèi)涵，以農(nóng)村發(fā)展為目標(biāo)，改善農(nóng)村生產(chǎn)生活條件和生態(tài)景觀開發(fā)和保護(hù)的工程都被定義為土地整理項(xiàng)目。同時本文也介紹了各種土地整理的方法及相關(guān)理論，供今后開展土地整理項(xiàng)目借鑒。土地整理范圍的界定土地整理一向被視為一種促進(jìn)農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展的工具或切入點(diǎn)，早期土地整理的概念幾乎等同于農(nóng)業(yè)發(fā)展。因?yàn)楫?dāng)時農(nóng)業(yè)在農(nóng)村發(fā)展中占據(jù)主導(dǎo)地位，改善農(nóng)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)基本與改善農(nóng)民生產(chǎn)生活條件、促進(jìn)農(nóng)村社會發(fā)展的工作基本一致。早期項(xiàng)目的一個總體目標(biāo)是增加土地的凈收入，增加產(chǎn)量和降低其成本。以此為重點(diǎn)的土地整理，主要是規(guī)整零散地塊，改善農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)條件，如改善灌溉和排水基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，加強(qiáng)水資源管理，建設(shè)農(nóng)村道路，土地平整，土壤改良，改變土地用途，轉(zhuǎn)換劣等土地為林地或濕地等措施。這樣的土地整理在現(xiàn)在仍然必不可少的，但農(nóng)業(yè)現(xiàn)在已不再被單獨(dú)視為的農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)。農(nóng)村發(fā)展的觀念也更價廣泛，已擴(kuò)大到包括提高環(huán)境意識和廣泛的非農(nóng)應(yīng)用方面。土地整理項(xiàng)目的重心已從調(diào)整農(nóng)業(yè)演變?yōu)閯?chuàng)建一個更有效的多種用途的農(nóng)村空間，以實(shí)現(xiàn)農(nóng)業(yè)，景觀，自然保護(hù)，娛樂和交通運(yùn)輸（特別是農(nóng)村發(fā)展所需的生產(chǎn)生活道路）的平衡發(fā)展。環(huán)境條件正在得到越來越多的優(yōu)先考慮。在建造道路時也越來越多的考慮到與景觀的協(xié)調(diào)性。水體恢復(fù)工程經(jīng)常與緩沖區(qū)建設(shè)同時設(shè)計。土地整理項(xiàng)目，也用于保護(hù)濕地和改變土地利用方式，特別是在頻繁的受到洪水威脅或土壤侵蝕嚴(yán)重的地區(qū)。土地整理項(xiàng)目的內(nèi)容，現(xiàn)在擴(kuò)展到農(nóng)村的持續(xù)發(fā)展。項(xiàng)目包括為新的住宅和工作場所提供足夠的土地，以改善生活和工作條件。隨著農(nóng)村經(jīng)濟(jì)的變化，先前用于農(nóng)業(yè)的建筑物經(jīng)過裝修，被賦予其他社會和商業(yè)用途。伴隨著農(nóng)村發(fā)展概念的改變，土地整理現(xiàn)在越來越重視考慮各方利益。土地整理也會參與到農(nóng)村土地沖突的調(diào)解中，作為解決糾紛的替代方式。土地整理項(xiàng)目，也為土地使用權(quán)分配的現(xiàn)代化服務(wù)，取消一些失效的使用權(quán)，其中包括一些放牧，牧草種植，木材采伐，捕魚和船運(yùn)，和提取的泥炭，粘土和沙的權(quán)利。在早期項(xiàng)目中鞏固安置農(nóng)民通常被認(rèn)為很重要的。最初建立在舊的村莊基礎(chǔ)上的家庭農(nóng)場，被重新安置在土地整理項(xiàng)目區(qū)的周圍。隨著機(jī)動車輛的廣泛使用，從村莊到農(nóng)地變得更容易，所以現(xiàn)代的村莊更應(yīng)當(dāng)被視為原農(nóng)村人口的聚居地而不是孤立的農(nóng)場。在某些情況下，農(nóng)戶往往相當(dāng)不情愿從人口稠密的地區(qū)搬到更遙遠(yuǎn)的地區(qū)。土地整理這種安置農(nóng)民功能并不太容易實(shí)現(xiàn)。因?yàn)?，在一些處于轉(zhuǎn)型期國家中的農(nóng)村地區(qū)并沒有過于擁擠，甚至與此相反，他們的人口正在減少。然而，也會有這種情況，農(nóng)民往返工作場所和住所的時間很長，這時如果家屬愿意搬遷，那么重新安置的可能是一個解決辦法。土地整理的方法促進(jìn)農(nóng)村發(fā)展最有效的工具是全面的土地整理。但有時其他方法，如簡單的地塊歸并，自發(fā)的土地集約，還有個人主動的整理也會帶來的良好的效益。本節(jié)概述了這些不同的做法。綜合土地整理包括歸并土地，重新安排土地利用方式等一系列措施，以促進(jìn)農(nóng)村發(fā)展。這些活動包括農(nóng)村的重建，支持以社區(qū)為基礎(chǔ)的農(nóng)業(yè)加工，建設(shè)農(nóng)村道路，建造和修復(fù)灌溉和排水系統(tǒng)，防止水土流失的措施，保護(hù)環(huán)境和改善包括指定的自然保護(hù)區(qū)，并建立社會基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施，包括運(yùn)動場地和其他公共設(shè)施。土地整理項(xiàng)目的程序隨著國家的不同而不同，但他們通常都包括：啟動的項(xiàng)目，項(xiàng)目設(shè)計，盤點(diǎn)土地權(quán)利和土地的價值的現(xiàn)狀，制定了詳細(xì)的整合計劃，整理后地塊的布局，計劃的實(shí)施，以及最終結(jié)束階段，最后記錄的生產(chǎn)等。詳見見表3表3綜合土地整理項(xiàng)目的步驟1.土地整理項(xiàng)目的啟動a）項(xiàng)目啟動申請。b）分析有關(guān)情況，并確定需求和目的。c）編制計劃的初步概念，目標(biāo)，擬議項(xiàng)目，估計費(fèi)用和資金來源。d）申請的審核。e）構(gòu)建工作小組，統(tǒng)一意見。2?項(xiàng)目的設(shè)計a）為項(xiàng)目設(shè)計挑選專家。b）項(xiàng)目的精確的定義和范圍領(lǐng)域的確定。c）編制費(fèi)用估算和項(xiàng)目時間表。d）評價預(yù)測的成本和效益。e）確定費(fèi)用的計算方式。整理分析現(xiàn)有資料a）確定項(xiàng)目區(qū)的界址和土地權(quán)屬狀況，其中包括租賃權(quán)，抵押貸款，和地役權(quán)或地役權(quán)。b）重要環(huán)境領(lǐng)域的界定。c）確定的各項(xiàng)目的權(quán)重。d）處理有關(guān)邊界，所有權(quán)和價值的爭議。4?制定詳細(xì)的土地整理計劃。a）編制整理計劃草案，明確整理項(xiàng)目規(guī)劃，確定新建的道路和其他公共設(shè)施的布局，并明確這些道路和設(shè)施變更。b）對幾個備選方案進(jìn)行成本效益和環(huán)境影響評估。c）對項(xiàng)目的選擇進(jìn)行審核。d）編寫最后的詳細(xì)計劃，以供參考。e）爭議裁決。f）批準(zhǔn)的詳細(xì)的土地整理計劃。5?詳細(xì)土地整理計劃的實(shí)施。a）選擇建造工程的承包商b）公共設(shè)施的建設(shè)（生產(chǎn)技術(shù)改進(jìn)，土地平整，排水系統(tǒng)，新的道路與橋梁和涵洞等）c）整理后土地界址的重新測定。6?最后階段。a）補(bǔ)償和費(fèi)用分?jǐn)傆媱澋闹贫ā）最終地籍圖的更新。c）變更登記，頒發(fā)土地證書。3.12在進(jìn)行這些步驟時的職責(zé)分配也會因權(quán)限的不同而變化。通常對全面監(jiān)督、控制和監(jiān)測、執(zhí)行等職能有明確的分工。監(jiān)督機(jī)構(gòu)的權(quán)責(zé)應(yīng)當(dāng)明確，并書面確定。在土地整理試點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目的計劃中，首先要考慮的是，明確各部分的作用和責(zé)任。這