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絕密★啟用前

2018年全國(guó)碩士研究生招生考試

英語(yǔ)(一)

(科目代碼:201)

☆考生注意事項(xiàng)眾

1.答題前,考生須在試題冊(cè)指定位置上填寫(xiě)考生編號(hào)和考生姓名;在答題卡

指定位置上填寫(xiě)報(bào)考單位、考生姓名和考生編號(hào),并涂寫(xiě)考生編號(hào)信息點(diǎn)。

2.考生須把試題冊(cè)上的“試卷?xiàng)l形碼”粘貼條取下,粘貼在答題卡的“試卷

條形碼粘貼位置”框中。不按規(guī)定粘貼條形碼而影響評(píng)卷結(jié)果的,責(zé)任由

考生自負(fù)。

3.選擇題的答案必須涂寫(xiě)在答題卡相應(yīng)題號(hào)的選項(xiàng)上,非選擇題的答案必須

書(shū)寫(xiě)在答題卡指定位置的邊框區(qū)域內(nèi)。超出答題區(qū)域書(shū)寫(xiě)的答案無(wú)效;在

草稿紙、試題冊(cè)上答題無(wú)效。

4.填(書(shū))寫(xiě)部分必須使用黑色字跡簽字筆書(shū)寫(xiě),字跡工整、筆跡清楚;涂

寫(xiě)部分必須使用2B鉛筆填涂。

5.考試結(jié)束,將答題卡和試題冊(cè)按規(guī)定交回。

(以下信息考生必須認(rèn)真填寫(xiě))

考生編號(hào)

考生姓名

SectionIUseofEnglish

Directions:

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)fbreachnumberedblankandmark

A,B,CorDontheANSWERSHEET.(10points)

Trustisatrickybusiness.Ontheonehand,it'sanecessarycondition]many

worthwhilethings:childcare,friendships,etc.Ontheotherhand,puttingyour2in

thewrongplaceoftencarriesahigh3.

4,whydowetrustatall?Well,becauseitfeelsgood.5peopleplace

theirtrustinanindividualoraninstitution,theirbrainsreleaseoxytocin,ahormone

that6pleasurablefeelingsandtriggerstheherdinginstinctthatprompts

humansto7withoneanother.Scientistshavefoundthatexposure8this

hormoneputsusinatrusting9:InaSwissstudy,researcherssprayedoxytocininto

thenosesofhalfthesubjects;thosesubjectswerereadytolendsignificantlyhigher

amountsofmoneytostrangersthanweretheir10whoinhaledsomethingelse.

11fbrus,wealsohaveasixthsensefbrdishonestythatmay12us.A

Canadianstudyfoundthatchildrenasyoungas14monthscandifferentiate13a

crediblepersonandadishonestone.Sixtytoddlerswereeach14toanadult

testerholdingaplasticcontainer.Thetesterwouldask,"What'sinhere?^^before

lookingintothecontainer,smiling,andexclaiming,"Wow!”Eachsubjectwasthen

invitedtolook15.Halfofthemfoundatoy;theotherhalf16the

containerwasempty-andrealizedthetesterhad17them.

Amongthechildrenwhohadnotbeentricked,themajoritywere18to

cooperatewiththetesterinlearninganewskill,demonstratingthattheytrustedhis

leadership.19,onlyfiveofthe30childrenpairedwiththe"20"tester

participatedinafollow-upactivity.

1.[A]on[B|like[C]for[D]from

2.[A]faith[B]concern[C]attention[D]interest

3.[A]benefit[B]debt[C]hope[D]price

4.[A]Therefore[B]Then[C]Instead[D]Again

5.[A]Until[B]Unless[C]Although[D]When

6.[A]selects[B]produces[C]applies[D]maintains

7.[A]consult[B]compete[C]connect[D]compare

8.[A]at[B]by[C]of[D]to

9.[A]context[B]mood[C]period[D]circle

10.[A]counterparts[B]substitutes[C]colleagues[D]supporters

11.[A]Funny[B]Lucky[C]Odd[D]Ironic

12.[A]monitor[B|protect[C]surprise[DJdelight

13.[A]between[B]within[C]toward[D]over

14.[A]transferred[B]added[C]introduced[D]entrusted

15.[A]out[B]back[C]around[D]inside

16.[A|discovered[B|proved[C]insisted[D]remembered

17.[A]betrayed[B]wronged[C]fooled[D]mocked

18.[A]forced[B]willing[C]hesitant[D]entitled

19.[A]Incontrast[B]Asaresult[C]Onthewhole[D]Forinstance

20.[A]inflexible[B]incapable[C]unreliable[D]unsuitable

SectionIIReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions:

Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsaftereachtextbychoosingA,B,

CorD.MarkyouranswersontheANSWERSHEET.(40points)

2

Text1

Amongtheannoyingchallengesfacingthemiddleclassisonethatwillprobably

gounmentionedinthenextpresidentialcampaign:Whathappenswhentherobots

comefortheirjobs?

Don'tdismissthatpossibilityentirely.AbouthalfofU.S.jobsareathighriskof

beingautomated,accordingtoaUniversityofOxfordstudy,withthemiddleclass

disproportionatelysqueezed.Lower-incomejobslikegardeningordaycaredon't

appealtorobots.Butmanymiddle-classoccupations-trucking,financialadvice,

softwareengineering-havearousedtheirinterest,orsoonwill.Therichownthe

robots,sotheywillbefine.

Thisisn'ttobealarmist.Optimistspointoutthattechnologicalupheavalhas

benefitedworkersinthepast.TheIndustrialRevolutiondidn'tgosowellfbrLuddites

whosejobsweredisplacedbymechanizedlooms,butiteventuallyraisedliving

standardsandcreatedmorejobsthanitdestroyed.Likewise,automationshould

eventuallyboostproductivity,stimulatedemandbydrivingdownprices,andfree

workersfromhard,boringwork.Butinthemediumterm,middle-classworkersmay

needalotofhelpadjusting.

Thefirststep,asErikBrynjolfssonandAndrewMcAfeeargueinTheSecond

MachineAge,shouldberethinkingeducationandjobtraining.Curriculums-from

grammarschooltocollege-shouldevolvetofocuslessonmemorizingfactsand

moreoncreativityandcomplexcommunication.Vocationalschoolsshoulddoa

betterjoboffosteringproblem-solvingskillsandhelpingstudentsworkalongside

robots.Onlineeducationcansupplementthetraditionalkind.Itcouldmakeextra

trainingandinstructionaffordable.Professionalstryingtoacquirenewskillswillbe

abletodosowithoutgoingintodebt.

ThechallengeofcopingwithautomationunderlinestheneedfbrtheU.S.to

reviveitsfadingbusinessdynamism:Startingnewcompaniesmustbemadeeasier.In

previouserasofdrastictechnologicalchange,entrepreneurssmoothedthetransition

bydreamingupwaystocombinelaborandmachines.Thebestusesof3Dprinters

andvirtualrealityhaven'tbeeninventedyet.TheU.S.needsthenewcompaniesthat

willinventthem.

Finally,becauseautomationthreatenstowidenthegapbetweencapitalincome

andlaborincome,taxesandthesafetynetwillhavetoberethought.Taxesonlow-

wagelaborneedtobecut,andwagesubsidiessuchastheearnedincometaxcredit

shouldbeexpanded:Thiswouldboostincomes,encouragework,rewardcompanies

fbrjobcreation,andreduceinequality.

Technologywillimprovesocietyinwaysbigandsmalloverthenextfewyears,

yetthiswillbelittlecomforttothosewhofindtheirlivesandcareersupendedby

automation.Destroyingthemachinesthatarecomingforourjobswouldbenuts.But

policiestohelpworkersadaptwillbeindispensable.

3

21.Whowillbemostthreatenedbyautomation?

[A]Leadingpoliticians.

[B]Low-wagelaborers.

[C]Robotowners.

[D]Middle-classworkers.

22.Whichofthefollowingbestrepresentstheauthor'sview?

[A]Worriesaboutautomationareinfactgroundless.

[B]Optimists5opinionsonnewtechfindlittlesupport.

[C]Issuesarisingfromautomationneedtobetackled.

[D|Negativeconsequencesofnewtechcanbeavoided.

23.Educationintheageofautomationshouldputmoreemphasison

[A]creativepotential.

[B]job-huntingskills.

[C]individualneeds.

[D]cooperativespirit.

24.Theauthorsuggeststhattaxpoliciesbeaimedat

[A]encouragingthedevelopmentofautomation.

[B]increasingthereturnoncapitalinvestment.

[C]easingthehostilitybetweenrichandpoor.

[D]preventingtheincomegapfromwidening.

25.Inthistext,theauthorpresentsaproblemwith

[A]opposingviewsonit.

[B]possiblesolutionstoit.

[C]itsalarmingimpacts.

[D]itsmajorvariations.

4

Text2

AnewsurveybyHarvardUniversityfindsmorethantwo-thirdsofyoung

AmericansdisapproveofPresidentTrump'suseofTwitter.Theimplicationisthat

MillennialsprefernewsfromtheWhiteHousetobefilteredthroughothersources,

notapresident'ssocialmediaplatform.

MostAmericansrelyonsocialmediatocheckdailyheadlines.Yetasdistrusthas

risentowardallmedia,peoplemaybestartingtobeefuptheirmedialiteracyskills.

Suchatrendisbadlyneeded.Duringthe2016presidentialcampaign,nearlyaquarter

ofwebcontentsharedbyTwitterusersinthepoliticallycriticalstateofMichiganwas

fakenews,accordingtotheUniversityofOxford.Andasurveyconductedfor

BuzzFeedNewsfound44percentofFacebookusersrarelyornevertrustnewsfrom

themediagiant.

Youngpeoplewhoaredigitalnativesareindeedbecomingmoreskillfulat

separatingfactfromfictionincyberspace.AKnightFoundationfbcus-groupsurvey

ofyoungpeoplebetweenages14and24foundtheyuse''distributedtrust“toverify

stories.Theycross-checksourcesandprefernewsfromdifferentperspectives-

especiallythosethatareopenaboutanybias."Manyyoungpeopleassumeagreat

dealofpersonalresponsibilityforeducatingthemselvesandactivelyseekingout

opposingviewpoints,9,thesurveyconcluded.

Suchactiveresearchcanhaveanothereffect.A2014surveyconductedin

Australia,Britain,andtheUnitedStatesbytheUniversityofWisconsin-Madison

foundthatyoungpeople'srelianceonsocialmedialedtogreaterpoliticalengagement.

Socialmediaallowsuserstoexperiencenewseventsmoreintimatelyand

immediatelywhilealsopermittingthemtore-sharenewsasaprojectionoftheir

valuesandinterests.Thisforcesuserstobemoreconsciousoftheirroleinpassing

alonginformation.AsurveybyBarnaresearchgroupfoundthetopreasongivenby

Americansforthefakenewsphenomenonis"readererror,moresothanmade-up

storiesorfactualmistakesinreporting.Aboutathirdsaytheproblemoffakenews

liesin"'misinterpretationorexaggerationofactualnews“viasocialmedia.Inother

words,thechoicetosharenewsonsocialmediamaybetheheartoftheissue."This

indicatesthereisarealpersonalresponsibilityincounteractingthisproblem/9says

RoxanneStone,editorinchiefatBarnaGroup.

Sowhenyoungpeoplearecriticalofanover-tweetingpresident,theyreveala

mentaldisciplineinthinkingskills-andintheirchoicesonwhentoshareonsocial

media.

5

26.AccordingtoParagraphsIand2,manyyoungAmericanscastdoubtson

[A]thejustificationofthenews-filteringpractice.

[B]people'spreferenceforsocialmediaplatforms.

[C]theadministration'sabilitytohandleinformation.

[D]socialmediaasareliablesourceofnews.

27.Thephrase“beefup”(Line2,Para.2)isclosestinmeaningto

[A]sharpen.

[B]define.

[C]boast.

[D]share.

28.AccordingtotheKnightFoundationsurvey,youngpeople

[A]tendtovoicetheiropinionsincyberspace.

[B]verifynewsbyreferringtodiversesources.

[C]haveastrongsenseofresponsibility.

[D]liketoexchangeviewson"distributedtrust”.

29.TheBarnasurveyfoundthatamaincauseforthefakenewsproblemis

[A]readers9outdatedvalues.

[B]journalists9biasedreporting.

[C]readers'misinterpretation.

[D]journalists,made-upstories.

30.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext?

[A]ARiseinCriticalSkillsforSharingNewsOnline.

[B]ACounteractionAgainsttheOver-tweetingTrend.

[C]TheAccumulationofMutualTrustonSocialMedia.

[D]ThePlatformsforProjectionofPersonalInterests.

6

Text3

Anyfair-mindedassessmentofthedangersofthedealbetweenBritain's

NationalHealthService(NHS)andDeepMindmuststartbyacknowledgingthatboth

sidesmeanwell.DeepMindisoneoftheleadingartificialintelligence(AI)

companiesintheworld.Thepotentialofthisworkappliedtohealthcareisverygreat,

butitcouldalsoleadtofurtherconcentrationofpowerinthetechgiants.Itisagainst

thatbackgroundthattheinformationcommissioner,ElizabethDenham,hasissuedher

damningverdictagainsttheRoyalFreehospitaltrustundertheNHS,whichhanded

overtoDeepMindtherecordsof1.6millionpatientsin2015onthebasisofavague

agreementwhichtookfartoolittleaccountofthepatients9rightsandtheir

expectationsofprivacy.

DeepMindhasalmostapologized.TheNHStrusthasmendeditsways.Further

arrangements-andtheremaybemany-betweentheNHSandDeepMindwillbe

carefullyscrutinisedtoensurethatallnecessarypermissionshavebeenaskedof

patientsandallunnecessarydatahasbeencleaned.Therearelessonsaboutinformed

patientconsenttolearn.Butprivacyisnottheonlyangleinthiscaseandnoteventhe

mostimportant.MsDenhamchosetoconcentratetheblameontheNHStrust,since

underexistinglawit“controlled“thedataandDeepMindmerely"processed"it.But

thisdistinctionmissesthepointthatitisprocessingandaggregation,notthemere

possessionofbits,thatgivesthedatavalue.

Thegreatquestioniswhoshouldbenefitfromtheanalysisofallthedatathatour

livesnowgenerate.Privacylawbuildsontheconceptofdamagetoanindividual

fromidentifiableknowledgeaboutthem.Thatmissesthewaythesurveillance

economyworks.Thedataofanindividualtheregainsitsvalueonlywhenitis

comparedwiththedataofcountlessmillionsmore.

Theuseofprivacylawtocurbthetechgiantsinthisinstancefeelsslightly

maladapted.Thispracticedoesnotaddresstherealworry.Itisnotenoughtosaythat

thealgorithmsDeepMinddevelopswillbenefitpatientsandsavelives.Whatmatters

isthattheywillbelongtoaprivatemonopolywhichdevelopedthemusingpublic

resources.Ifsoftwarepromisestosavelivesonthescalethatdrugsnowcan,bigdata

maybeexpectedtobehaveasabigpharmahasdone.Wearestillatthebeginningof

thisrevolutionandsmallchoicesnowmayturnouttohavegiganticconsequences

later.Alongstrugglewillbeneededtoavoidafutureofdigitalfeudalism.Ms

Denham'sreportisawelcomestart.

7

31.WhatistrueoftheagreementbetweentheNHSandDeepMind?

[A]Itcausedconflictsamongtechgiants.

[B]Itfailedtopaydueattentiontopatients9rights.

[C]Itfellshortofthelatter'sexpectations.

[D]Itputbothsidesintoadangeroussituation.

32.TheNHStrustrespondedtoDenham'sverdictwith

[A]emptypromises.

[B]toughresistance.

[C]necessaryadjustments.

[D]sincereapologies.

33.TheauthorarguesinParagraph2that

[A]privacyprotectionmustbesecuredatallcosts.

[B]leakingpatients'dataisworsethansellingit.

[C]makingprofitsfrompatients9dataisillegal.

[D]thevalueofdatacomesfromtheprocessingofit.

34.Accordingtothelastparagraph,therealworryarisingfromthisdealis

[A]theviciousrivalryamongbigpharmas.

[B]theineffectiveenforcementofprivacylaw.

[C]theuncontrolleduseofnewsoftware.

[D]themonopolyofbigdatabytechgiants.

35.Theauthor'sattitudetowardtheapplicationofAItohealthcareis

[A]ambiguous.

[B]cautious.

[C]appreciative.

[D]contemptuous.

8

Text4

TheU.S.PostalService(USPS)continuestobleedredink.Itreportedanetloss

of$5.6billionforfiscal2016,the10thstraightyearitsexpenseshaveexceeded

revenue.Meanwhile,ithasmorethan$120billioninunfundedliabilities,mostlyfor

employeehealthandretirementcosts.Therearemanyreasonsthisformerlystable

federalinstitutionfindsitselfatthebrinkofbankruptcy.Fundamentally,theUSPSis

inahistoricsqueezebetweentechnologicalchangethathaspermanentlydecreased

demandfbritsbread-and-butterproduct,first-classmail,andaregulatorystructure

thatdeniesmanagementtheflexibilitytoadjustitsoperationstothenewreality.

Andinterestgroupsrangingfrompostalunionstogreeting-cardmakersexert

self-interestedpressureontheUSPS'sultimateoverseer-Congress-insistingthat

whateverelsehappenstothePostalService,aspectsofthestatusquotheydependon

getprotected.Thisiswhyrepeatedattemptsatreformlegislationhavefailedinrecent

years,leavingthePostalServiceunabletopayitsbillsexceptbydeferringvital

modernization.

Nowcomeswordthateveryoneinvolved-Democrats,Republicans,thePostal

Service,theunionsandthesystem'sheaviestusers-hasfinallyagreedonaplanto

fixthesystem.LegislationismovingthroughtheHousethatwouldsaveUSPSan

estimated$28.6billionoverfiveyears,whichcouldhelppayfornewvehicles,

amongothersurvivalmeasures.Mostofthemoneywouldcomefromapenny-per-

letterpermanentrateincreaseandfromshiftingpostalretireesintoMedicare.The

latterstepwouldlargelyoffsetthefinancialburdenofannuallypre-fundingretiree

healthcare,thusaddressingalong-standingcomplaintbytheUSPSanditsunions.

IfitclearstheHouse,thismeasurewouldstillhavetogetthroughtheSenate一

wheresomeoneisboundtopointoutthatitamountstothebare,bareminimum

necessarytokeepthePostalServiceafloat,notcomprehensivereform.There'sno

changetocollectivebargainingattheUSPS,amajoromissionconsideringthat

personnelaccountsfbr80percentoftheagency'scosts.Alsomissingisany

discussionofeliminatingSaturdayletterdelivery.Thatcommon-sensechangeenjoys

widepublicsupportandwouldsavetheUSPS$2billionperyear.Butpostalspecial-

interestgroupsseemtohavekilledit,atleastintheHouse.Theemergingconsensus

aroundthebillisasignthatlegislatorsaregettingfrightenedaboutapolitically

embarrassingshort-termcollapseattheUSPS.Itisnot,however,asignthatthey9re

gettingseriousabouttransformingthepostalsystemforthe21stcentury.

9

36.ThefinancialproblemwiththeUSPSiscausedpartlyby

[A]itsunbalancedbudget.

[B]itsrigidmanagement.

[C]thecostfortechnicalupgrading.

[D]thewithdrawalofbanksupport.

37.AccordingtoParagraph2,theUSPSfailstomodernizeitselfdueto

[A]theinterferencefrominterestgroups.

[B]theinadequatefundingfromCongress.

[C]theshrinkingdemandforpostalservice.

[D]theincompetenceofpostalunions.

38.Thelong-standingcomplaintbytheUSPSanditsunionscanbeaddressedby

[A]removingitsburdenofretireehealthcare.

[B]makingmoreinvestmentinnewvehicles.

[C]adoptinganewrate-increasemechanism.

[D]attractingmorefirst-classmailusers.

39.Inthelastparagraph,theauthorseemstoviewlegislatorswith

[A]respect.

[B]tolerance.

[C]discontent.

[D]gratitude.

40.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleforthetext?

[A]TheUSPSStartstoMissItsGoodOldDays.

[B]ThePostalService:KeepAwayfromMyCheese.

[C]TheUSPS:ChronicIllnessRequiresaQuickCure.

[D]ThePostalServiceNeedsMoreThanaBand-Aid.

10

PartB

Directions:

Thefollowingparagraphsaregiveninawrongorder.ForQuestions41-45,youare

requiredtoreorganizetheseparagraphsintoacoherentarticlebychoosingfromthe

listA-Gandfillingthemintothenumberedboxes.ParagraphsCandFhavebeen

correctlyplaced.MarkyouranswersontheANSWERSHEET.(10points)

[A]InDecemberof1869,Congressappointedacommissiontoselectasiteand

prepareplansandcostestimatesforanewStateDepartmentBuilding.The

commissionwasalsotoconsiderpossiblearrangementsfortheWarandNavy

Departments.TothehorrorofsomewhoexpectedaGreekRevivaltwinofthe

TreasuryBuildingtobeerectedontheothersideoftheWhiteHouse,the

elaborateFrenchSecondEmpirestyledesignbyAlfredMullettwasselected,and

constructionofabuildingtohouseallthreedepartmentsbeganinJuneof1871.

[B]Completedin1875,theStateDepartment'ssouthwingwasthefirsttobe

occupied,withitselegantfbur-storylibrary(completedin1876),Diplomatic

ReceptionRoom,andSecretary'sofficedecoratedwithcarvedwood,Oriental

rugs,andstenciledwallpatterns.TheNavyDepartmentmovedintotheeastwing

in1879,whereelaboratewallandceilingstencilingandmarquetryfloors

decoratedtheofficeoftheSecretary.

[C]TheState,War,andNavyBuilding,asitwasoriginallyknown,housedthethree

ExecutiveBranchDepartmentsmostintimatelyassociatedwithformulatingand

conductingthenation'sforeignpolicyinthelastquarterofthenineteenthcentury

andthefirstquarterofthetwentiethcentury-theperiodwhentheUnitedStates

emergedasaninternationalpower.Thebuildinghashousedsomeofthenation's

mostsignificantdiplomatsandpoliticiansandhasbeenthesceneofmany

historicevents.

[D]Manyofthemostcelebratednationalfigureshaveparticipatedinhistoricalevents

thathavetakenplacewithintheEEOB'sgranitewalls.TheodoreandFranklinD.

Roosevelt,WilliamHowardTaft,DwightD.Eisenhower,LyndonB.Johnson,

GeraldFord,andGeorgeH.W.Bushallhadofficesinthisbuildingbefore

11

becomingpresident.Ithashoused16SecretariesoftheNavy,21Secretariesof

War,and24SecretariesofState.WinstonChurchilloncewalkeditscorridorsand

JapaneseemissariesmetherewithSecretaryofStateCordellHullafterthe

bombingofPearlHarbor.

[E]TheEisenhowerExecutiveOfficeBuilding(EEOB)commandsauniqueposition

inboththenationalhistoryandthearchitecturalheritageoftheUnitedStates.

DesignedbySupervisingArchitectoftheTreasury,AlfredB.Mullett,itwasbuilt

from1871to1888tohousethegrowingstaffsoftheState,War,andNavy

Departments,andisconsideredoneofthebestexamplesofFrenchSecond

Empirearchitectureinthecountry.

[F|Constructiontook17yearsasthebuildingslowlyrosewingbywing.Whenthe

EEOBwasfinished,itwasthelargestofficebuildinginWashington,withnearly

2milesofblackandwhitetiledcorridors.Almostalloftheinteriordetailisof

castironorplaster;theuseofwoodwasminimizedtoinsurefiresafety.Eight

monumentalcurvingstaircasesofgranitewithover4,000individuallycastbronze

balustersarecappedbyfourskylightdomesandtwostainedglassrotundas.

[G]ThehistoryoftheEEOBbeganlongbeforeitsfoundationswerelaid.Thefirst

executiveofficeswereconstructedbetween1799and1820.Aseriesoffires

(includingthosesetbytheBritishin1814)andovercrowdedconditionsledtothe

constructionoftheexistingTreasuryBuilding.In1866,theconstructionofthe

NorthWingoftheTreasuryBuildingnecessitatedthedemolitionoftheState

Departmentbuilding.

41.IC\|42.I43.I—IFkI44.|7|45.

12

PartC

Directions:

Readthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsinto

Chinese.WriteyouranswersontheANSWERSHEET.(10points)

Shakespeare^lifetimewascoincidentwithaperiodofextraordinaryactivityand

achievementinthedrama.(46)By[hedateofhisbirthEuropewaswitnessing[he

passingofthereligiousdrama,andthecreationofnewformsundertheincentiveof

classicaltragedyandcomedy.Thesenewformswereatfirstmainlywrittenby

scholarsandperformedbyamateurs,butinEngland,aseverywhereelseinwestern

Europe,thegrowthofaclassofprofessionalactorswasthreateningtomakethe

dramapopular,whetheritshouldbeneworold,classicalormedieval,literaryor

farcical.Court,school,organizationsofamateurs,andthetravelingactorswereall

rivalsinsupplyingawidespreaddesirefbrdramaticentertainment;and(47)noboy

whowenttoagrammarschoolcouldbeignorantthatthedramawasaformof

literaturewhichgaveglorytoGreeceandRomeandmightyetbringhonortoEngland.

WhenShakespearewastwelveyearsoldthefirstpublicplayhousewasbuiltin

London.Foratimeliteratureshowednointerestinthispublicstage.Playsaimingat

literarydistinctionwerewrittenforschoolsorcourt,orforthechoirboysofStPaufs

andtheroyalchapel,who,however,gaveplaysinpublicaswellasatcourt.(48)But

theprofessionalcompaniesprosperedintheirpermanenttheaters,anduniversitymen

withliteraryambitionswerequicktoturntothesetheatersasofferingameansof

livelihood.BythetimethatShakespearewastwenty-five,Lyly,Peele,andGreene

hadmadecomediesthatwereatoncepopularandliterary;Kydhadwrittenatragedy

thatcrowdedthepit;andMarlowehadbroughtpoetryandgeniustotriumphon

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