1、Chapter IX CHANGES IN WORD MEANING,Overview Causes of changes in word meaning Tendencies in semantic change,1,An overview of semantic changes Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively speaking, the content is ev

2、en more unstable than the form. Changing in word meaning has never ceased since the language came into being and will continue in the future. The change of word-meaning is fundamental in a living language.,2,Causes of Change in word meaning,Linguistic causes Ellipsis Borrowing Analogy Figurative use

3、 of words Metaphor Metonymy,Extra-linguistic causes Historical reason Social reason Psychological reason,3,Linguistic causes,Ellipsis The meaning of a word may change when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole. This is called ellipsis. gold: gold medal daily: daily

4、 newspaper,The meaning of the word “gold” has changed from material to refer to the whole phrase “gold medal”. This kind of change often occurs in habitual collocations.,4,Borrowing The influx (流入) of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. deer (original) a wild animal of any sort fr

5、om a lion to a mouse. In Middle Ages, the French word beste (=beast) became the general word. In 16th century, the Latin word animal was also adopted into the English vocabulary. Today deer can only refer to a particular kind of animal.,5,Analogy If an adjective develops a new meaning, the derived n

6、oun from the adjective will have a corresponding new meaning by analogy. The process can be applied to a word of any word class.,Diplomatic (original) skillful in dealing with international relations (present) skillful in dealing with any kind of relations,Diplomatic: Diplomacy,Diplomacy (original)

7、the art of dealing with international relations (present) ? art of or skill in dealing with people,Analogy,6,Figurative use of words The figurative use refers to the expression of saying something is another thing thereby making the speech or article vivid and stimulating the readers imagination. Th

8、e original thing is called tenor while thing compared to is called vehicle. Metaphor the bottom. the foot of a mountain the foot of a page,This meaning is derived through the metaphor “The last line on this page is the foot of the page.”,10,Metonymy Metonymy is a figure of speech by which an object

9、or an idea is described by the name of something else closely related to it. That is to say, a transfer of names occurs between two things associated by actual contiguity, either by physical contact, or contact through various though associations. Seat Please take a seat. (a piece of furniture) He l

10、ost his seat in House of Commons.,The word “seat” has acquired the meaning of “the right to sit as a member” through metonymy.,11,Example: Cradle 1. A small low bed for an infant, often furnished with rockers 2. The earliest period of life; infancy from the cradle to the grave 3. A place of origin;

11、a birthplace the cradle of civilization.,These meanings are derived through the following metonyms.,12,Extra-linguistic causes,Historical cause A word has retained its original form, though its meaning has changed because the referent has changed, i.e., the historical cause of semantic change. pen c

12、ar,13,Social cause Language records the speech and attitude of different social classes, so different social varieties of language have come into being. The attitude of classes have penetrated into lexical meaning, particularly in the case of elevation and degradation. Churl, hussy, villain which we

13、re originally neutral have been down-graded as “ill-manned or bad people”. Hot and cold have changed their meaning in the field of politics, as in “cold war”,” hot war” and “hot line”,14,Psychological cause The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psycho

14、logical factors. Euphemism（委婉詞） Grandiloquence（夸張） Cynicism（挖苦語(yǔ)） People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, pessimism, sarcasm, irony, hatred, contempt, avoidance of embarrassment, etc.,15,Types/tendencies in semantic change,Specialization

15、/ Restriction of meaning Generalization / Extension of meaning Degradation (pejoration) / Degeneration of meaning Amelioration / Elevation of meaning,16,Specialization: Restriction of Meaning,It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a

16、word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English.,17,“生丈夫，二壺酒，一犬” 勾踐滅吳,18,Generalization: Extension of Meaning,It is also called widening of meaning or generalization. Its a process by which a word which originall

17、y had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.,19,“河內(nèi)兇，則移其民于河?xùn)|” 寡人之于國(guó)也,20,Degradation/pejoration: Degeneration of Meaning 詞義的降格,It is a process by which words with appreciatory or neutral affective meaning fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense.,21,Villain a farmer a man guilty of evil deeds,君子之道，辟如行遠(yuǎn)，必自邇；辟如登高，必自卑。中庸,22,Amelioration: Elevation of Meaning 詞義的升格,It is the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as