1、Logical Fallacies,Logical Fallacies,“Fallacy” comes from the Latin word fallacia, which means deceit（lie） or trick.,Logical Fallacies,Fallacies are statements that might sound reasonable or true but are actually flawed(not perfect) or dishonest.,1.Appeal to Tradition,This line of thought asserts tha

2、t a premise must be true because people have always believed it or done it. Alternatively, it may conclude that the premise has always worked in the past and will thus always work in the future.,1.Appeal to Tradition,“Jefferson City has kept its urban growth boundary at six miles for the past thirty

3、 years. That has been good enough for thirty years, so why should we change it now? If it is not broke, dont fix it.”,2.Appeal to Force,This argument uses force, the threat of force, or some other unpleasant backlash to make the audience accept a conclusion. It commonly appears as a last resort when

4、 evidence or rational arguments fail to convince. Logically, this consideration has nothing to do with the merits of the points under consideration.,2.Appeal to Force,“Superintendent(director or leader), it would be a good idea for your school to cut the budget by $16,000. I need not remind you that

5、 past school boards have fired superintendents who cannot keep down costs.”,Using a word in a different way than the author used it in the original premise, or changing definitions halfway through a discussion. When we use the same word or phrase in different senses within one line of argument, we c

6、ommit the fallacy of equivocation.,3.Equivocation(ambiguity),3.Equivocation,“Plato says the end of a thing is its perfection; I say that death is the end of life; hence, death is the perfection of life.”,4.Circular Reasoning,Often the authors word the two statements sufficiently differently to obscu

7、re the fact that the same argument occurs as both a premise and a conclusion.,4.Circular Reasoning,God exists. How do you know that God exists? The Bible says so.“ Why should I believe the Bible?“ Because its the inspired word of God.,5. Red Herring(a kind of fish),A red herring is a deliberate（inte

8、nded） attempt to change the subject or divert the argument from the real question at issue.,5. Red Herring,“I should not pay a fine for reckless driving. There are many other people on the street who are dangerous criminals and rapists, and the police should be chasing them, not harassing a decent tax-paying citizen like me.”,Logical Fallacies,It is important to avoid these logical fallacies in your own arguments. When detected, they backfire by making the audience think the speaker is unintelligent or deceptive. And it is als