1、,on writing of argumentation,how to write a topic sentence how to write introduction how to develop paragraphs how to write conclusion how to polish the language,topic sentence,主題句的基本要求 主題句必須由一個完整的句子構成，必須中肯扼要；必須把題目限定在該段落中恰如其分的范圍內(nèi)，即不是籠統(tǒng)的概括又不能過于具體。用詞應當嚴謹精練，意思清楚。 2. 主題句的位置 3. 寫主題句應注意的問題,主題句應該意義清楚 一個段落只

2、有一個主題句，不要范圍太廣，決不能將兩個甚至更多的主題塞進一個段落中。 e.g. learning a foreign language is difficult. learning english (french) is difficult. learning english by oneself is difficult.,2）要確定段落擴展的關鍵詞 主題句中的關鍵詞用于限定段落主題的擴展范圍和方向，可以是一個或幾個單詞。也可以稱為致力點（controlling idea），它支配了主題句的思想，是必不可少的元素。 e.g. electricity is in our lives. ele

3、ctricity is everywhere in our lives. 另外，正文部分各段落的主題句要與全文的主題密切關聯(lián)，為之服務。各段主題句要處于同一平面上，互相不能重疊。,3）避免用客觀事實充當主題句 主題句是用來闡述作者的觀點和思想的，因此帶有一定的主觀色彩，而客觀事實的句子無法制約主題發(fā)展的方向和范圍，也不含由作者的主觀思想，所以不能充當主題句。 e.g. radar is a device. spring is a season.,brainstorming 例：leonardo dicaprio is a very charming actor. firstly, he is

4、very handsome. secondly, he performed impressively in the film titanic. thirdly, he is easygoing and people-oriented.,the internet,advantages it is the most convenient and effective way of communication. the internet shortens the distance between people around the world. it allows access to a vast r

5、ange of knowledge and information.,disadvantages addiction to the internet, especially online games will exert adverse influence over peoples life, work and study. it is harmful to our health to spend too much time surfing online. pornographic websites will lead teenagers astray.,live on campus or o

6、ff campus,to live on campus - more opportunities to expose oneself to people and ideas : teachers, lectures, seminars - easy access to school resources: library, lab and other facilities - less money in terms of accommodation - more occasions to develop the ability to get along with others - compara

7、tively safe - easy for the school to take care of students study and life,to live off campus - more freedom and privacy - quieter environment for study - touching with society - good chance to be independent,to live on campus,to live on campus may allow students an easy access to school resources in

8、 various forms. if they live in a dormitory, students will have more occasions to develop the ability to get along with others. the school authorities also favor the idea of living on campus, as in that case they may exert less efforts in taking care of students study and life.,to live off campus,to

9、 live in a rented house, students can enjoy a quieter environment for study. it is a good chance for the students living off campus to be independent. to rent a house off campus also forces students to touch with society.,development of paragraphs,羅列法 (listing) 例證法（exemplification） 因果法（cause and eff

10、ect） 比較法和對比法 (comparison and contrast) 定義法（definition） 分類法（classification）,(1) 羅列法 (listing) 羅列法可以用于整篇，也可以用于個別段落。 注意點： a. 所羅列的要點須屬同層次內(nèi)容，而且意義不能互相涵蓋。 例：camping in wilderness is fun b. 要點之間的排列往往是從重要到次要，從一般到個別，從顯而易見到鮮為人知。,(2) 例證法 （exemplification） 常用于議論文和說明文的一種展開方式 1) 可以在不同論述層次上引用例子 a.為說明文章中某一要點或某一句話而引用

11、 b.直接舉例說明短文中心句或段落主題句 不同用途的例子在文中的重要程度及擴展的詳略程度也各有所異。 2) 如果同時列舉數(shù)例，應當注意適當?shù)呐判颍?一般到個別、顯而易見的到鮮為人知的、最重要的到最次要的,3) 使用例證法一般需要特定的過渡語標記（transitional words），當然也有個別情況無標記舉例 for example/for instance takeas proof(example, instance) such(as)/specifically/occasionally another example i remember is,the most striking ins

12、tance of this occurred when if any further examples were needed, i could mention can serve as an example to illustrate(the point)/as an illustration a case in point is,(3) 因果法 （cause and effect） 因果法主要是用來探索事物間因果關系的一種段落發(fā)展方式。作者通過客觀、正確的推理，分析事物發(fā)生的原因及產(chǎn)生的結果來闡述主題句、展開段落，使段落合乎邏輯，使主題句的支配思想令人信服。采用因果法寫作，一般通過三種途徑

13、：1) 闡述某些事件，行為或想法的由來. 2) 闡述某些事件或行為所產(chǎn)生的結果. 3) 將原因和結果同時結合在一起來加以討論。,例1: why should the climate be warmer in the southern hemisphere? one reason may be that most of the earths land mass is in the northern hemisphere, while our oceans are mostly in the southern half of the world. water does not absorb sun

14、light in the same way land does. also, industrial pollution is much heavier in the northern hemisphere, where it may be acting as a sunlight blocker.,reasons: location of land and water; 2. industrial pollution 多因的排列順序： 直接間接 表面根本 （先果后因）,例2: violence on television may be in great part responsible for

15、 the violence in our society. we have seen endless programs of mugging, knifing, robbery not only in half-hour or hour-long adult time segments but also in childrens cartoons and in childrens programming hours. it may be, then,that because crime has increased on the television screen, it has increas

16、ed around us, in our society. just as a child will speak with a foreign accent because that accent is constantly spoken in his environment, so he will pick up other behavioural responses. accents, however, are not destructive. violence is.,討論結果時，先因后果,因果法常用的過渡語：,表原因：because (of), since, as, for, owin

17、g to, due to, for the reason that, attribute to, impute to, 表結果：so, so as to, so that, therefore, thus, consequently, accordingly, as a result, hence, give rise to, 表示因果關系可以利用上述過渡語，并采用不同句式，例如表達“市民購買力下降”和“低收入”之間的因果關系，可用多種句型表示：,the cause of/reason for the decline in the citizens purchasing power is th

18、eir low income. one consequence / one result/ the effect of the low income is a decline in the citizens purchasing power. the citizens income has become lower. accordingly, / as a consequence, /as a result,/ because of this,/ consequently, / for this reason,/ now, / so, / therefore,/ thus, their pur

19、chasing power has declined.,as/ because/ now/ since the citizens income has become lower, their purchasing power has declined. low income causes/ leads to/ produces/ results in a decline in the citizens purchasing power. a decline in the citizens purchasing power is because of/ caused by/ due to/ ow

20、ing to their low income.,- the citizens income has become lower. hence a decline in their purchasing power. - the citizens purchasing power declines as a result of/ because of/ on account of/ owing to their low income. if/ when the citizens income becomes lower, their purchasing power declines.,(4)

21、比較法和對比法 (comparison and contrast) 注意點： 1) 比較或對比的對象必須屬于同一意義范疇。如，wife vs. husband; bicycle vs. car; city life vs. country life, chinese vs. english 2) 要遵循一致的比較模式。將相比較的對象稱為items, 把比較的方面稱作points，則可以分為a. point-by-point pattern (逐點比較法) b. block pattern (整塊比較法),例：as a popular saying goes, “health is better

22、 than wealth.” good health enables one to enjoy his life and achieve what he hopes for in his career. on the other hand, poor health tends to deprive one of his interest in everything around him. therefore, health is indispensable to ones happy.,5. 用定義法來擴展 （definition） 定義法是指在擴展段落時，解釋詞、短語或給各種事物和概念下定義

23、，以解釋和闡明某個概念的本質(zhì)特征，說明段落的中心思想，從而達到作者陳述論證或反駁某一觀點的目的。采用定義法擴展段落可通過同義詞、反義詞、術語例證以及比較和對照等方式給某一概念下定義。,what then, is generation gap? generation gap refers to the distance and contradiction between the old and the young. its a common phenomenon that exists everywhere in the world and influences both the old and

24、 the young. generally speaking, generation gap results in different understanding and appreciation of the great and constant changes of the world, different reaction to new things, and different attitudes to traditional principles and belief.,to describe its potentials the computer needs a new name.

25、 perhaps good a name as any is “information machine.” this term is intended to distinguish its function from that of a power machine, such as a loom. a loom performs the physical work of weaving a fabric; the information machine controls the pattern being woven. its purpose is not the performance of

26、 work but the ordering and supervision of the way in which the work is done.,6用分類法來擴展 （classification） 為了更清楚地說明某事物，把要解釋的事物根據(jù)其特點分成較小地類別或單位，逐類闡述。,例：the brave fiesta (西班牙的宗教節(jié)日), also called the most artistic and cruel way of killing an animal, consists of six performances in which six bulls are killed

27、by three bullfighters, one at a time. each of these individual performances consists of three main parts whose continuity presents one of the most beautiful and bloody spectacles which people pay to watch during the sunny afternoon in spain and certain countries in latin america.,useful expressions

28、in classification: classes/sections/families/categories/units/ parts/kinds/divisions/groups/types/items/sorts may be classified according to/fall into (two categories)/ can be divided into - may be further subdivided - comprises/,may be put into/ we may sort into,introduction,引言段包括opening sentences

29、和thesis statement 兩部分，主要有以下幾種常見的寫法： 一：對文章的命題進行簡單的陳述，縮小范圍，自然過渡到命題，如： topic: people should read only those books that are about real events, real people, and established facts. write a composition of about 300 words to support whether you agree or disagree with the above statement.,books can be factua

30、l about real events, real people and established facts like magazines, textbooks, and reference books. books can also be imaginative about imaginary events, imaginary people and made-up facts like novels, poetry selections and play scripts. whatever type a book belongs to, factual or imaginary, a we

31、ll-written book benefits their reader from a different angle; therefore, people should read books of both types.,二，對文章論述的重要概念下定義，如： topic: people seldom forget special gifts or presents that they have received. write a composition of about 300 words on this issue.,special gifts are gifts that people

32、 rarely give out or receive on a particular occasion. just because of rareness, special gifts are enriched with the feeling from the giver. the decision to give a special gift, the efforts made in finding one coupled with the rareness of the present makes a special gift deeply remembered.,三，以發(fā)問的形式開頭

33、，如： topic: what is one of the most important decisions you have made? why do you consider this decision important? write a composition of about 300 words on this issue.,what is an important decision? an important decision is one that influences us, especially our life to a great extent. an important

34、 decision can be either right or wrong. its importance lies in its impact on such great matters as our career, our way of life and our success in the society.,conclusion,結尾段由結束語 (closing statement) 和結論句(concluding sentence) 兩部分組成。結束語創(chuàng)造文章結束的氣氛，結論句則表達作者經(jīng)過上面的討論對主題有進一步的認識，并得出概括性結論。,結束語的寫法有兩種：一是總結正文，二是用另

35、一種表達方式重述文章的命題。 topic: some important natural resources, such as forests, animals, or clean water are disappearing. choose one resource and explain why it needs to be saved. write a composition of about 300 words on this issue.,假設正文第一段主題句為forests are home of animals. 第二段主題句為forests are sources of lum

36、ber, meat and some drug ingredients. 第三段主題句為 forests are producers of oxygen. 總結正文的結束語為： since forest are shelters of wild animals, suppliers of lumber, meat, natural drug ingredients and oxygen, they are mans most valuable natural resources.,結論句的寫法則有多種： 提出更具概括性的結論 the extinction of species, the sho

37、rtage of lumber and drug ingredients, the reduction of oxygen and the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere all signal that we cannot afford to lose any more forests.,2. 假設文章命題為 forests should be saved immediately for a number of reasons. 重述命題的結束語應為 forests are so valuable to our human life t

38、hat worldwide actions should be taken to stop losing any more of them.,2. 提出建議 to stop losing more forests, we should educate people, especially those who have destroyed and who are going to destroy forests for one reason or another, in why forests must exist on the earth.,3. 提出解決問題的辦法 to achieve a

39、most effective forest saving campaign, we can hold worldwide boycotts against any products directly and indirectly coming out from forestland.,4. 提出警告 if forests are continuously losing like today, one day in the future our humans will sustain the consequences of todays forest destruction, having no

40、 wild animals, lumber, natural drug ingredients and more importantly, oxygen.,5. 提出預言 should we not take actions to save forests today, one day in the future we will run out of such valuable natural resources as lumber, drug ingredients, animals and oxygen.,1句式錯落技巧 作文要盡量用簡潔明快的文字表達，但在必要時，特別是首尾段， 要有意識

41、地使用幾個主從句或并列句。 簡單句的連用最好不要超過三句。 短句用于強調(diào)，長句表達更復雜的思想。長，短句的搭配應錯落有秩。,e.g. i usually go to the country for a walk during the weekend. last sunday i decided to spend the whole day in the city for a change. i decided to visit the tiananmen square and the zhongshan park. it was early. i left home. the streets

42、around were deserted. there were no usual crowds and traffic. everything was strangely quiet.,revised version,though i usually go to the country for a walk during the weekend, i decided to spend the whole day in the city for a change last sunday. i went to the tiananmen square and the zhongshan park

43、. it was so early when i left home that the streets around my neighborhood were deserted. without the usual crowds and traffic, everything was strangely quiet.,you have to be careful not to be attracted by the variety of books in a bookshop. it is very easy to enter the shop looking for a book on, s

44、ay, ancient coins and to come out carrying a copy of the latest best-selling novel something which had not interested you up till then. this volume on the subject, however, happened to be so well illustrated and the part of the text you read proved so interesting, that you just had to buy it. this s

45、ort of thing can be very dangerous. apart from running up a huge account, you can waste a great deal of time wandering from section to section.,常見復雜句式：,定語從句 同位語從句 分詞伴隨狀語 并列結構 獨立組織結構 倒裝句,even those who dislike hemingways other novels are likely to enjoy the old man and the sea, which i consider it on

46、e of the literary masterpieces of our time.,定語從句,分詞伴隨狀語,anyway, luck may influence us, but we should never give up halfway, convinced that our effort will pay in the long run.,with the development of peoples living standard in modern society people consider entertainment to be indispensable to their

47、 life.,同位語從句 定語從句,this was just after the first world war, a time when americans were learning, probably for the first time on this massive scale, that there was variation between the english spoken in britain and in the united states.,many public school advocates take a harsh attitude toward home s

48、choolers, perceiving their actions as the ultimate slap in the face of public education and a damaging move for the children. home-schoolers harbor few kind words for public schools, charging shortcomings that range from lack of religious perspective in the curriculum to a herdlike approach to teach

49、ing children.,分詞伴隨狀語 并列結構,rewrite the following sentences a. youll find you are fit for business and you can make it your main job. b. we will own nothing at all if we depend on luck. c. dissatisfaction makes people produce desire for better things. d. since people are always not satisfied with thei

50、r present situation, they want further development.,e. money can improve their living standard. f. eating outside has the most advantage that we can go at anytime when we finish eating without doing any washing. g. in this continued process, people make progress. h. i am not good at math, but at eng

51、lish.,a. youll find you are fit for business and you can make it your main job.,a. you will find that you are cut out for business and you can make it your career.,b. we will own nothing at all if we depend on luck.,b. we will get nowhere if we rely on luck.,c. dissatisfaction makes people produce d

52、esire for better things.,c. dissatisfaction impels people for the better.,d. since people are always not satisfied with their present situation, they want further development.,d. since people are never satisfied with their status quo, they want further development.,e. money can improve their living

53、standard.,e. money can improve their life.,f. eating outside has the most advantage that we can go at anytime when we finish eating without doing any washing.,f. the best part of eating out is that we can leave everything behind after meal.,g. in this continued process, people make progress.,g. in t

54、his cycle, people make progress.,h. i am not good at math, but at english.,h. my strength is not mathematics but english.,2. use proverbs, witty lines etc. - a man is known by the company he keeps. 觀其友而知其人。 - as you sow, so will you reap. 種瓜得瓜，種豆得豆。 actions speak louder than words. 行動勝于空話。 - all thi

55、ngs come to those who wait. 蒼天不負苦心人。,- all things are difficult before they are easy. 萬事開頭難。 - achievement is founded on diligence and wasted upon recklessness. 業(yè)精于勤荒于嬉。 - better late than never. 遲做總比不做好。 bitter pills may have wholesome effects. 良藥苦口利于病， 忠言逆耳利于行。,- constant dripping wears away the s

56、tone. 滴水穿石。 the error of a moment becomes the regret of a lifetime. 一失足成千古恨。 - opportunity knocks only once. 機不可失時不再來。 - to err is humane; to forgive, divine. 人孰無過，寬恕為貴,(1) we feel free to do whatever we like, no longer restricted to the dull classroom regulations. (2) we may breathe in much fresher

57、 air and do many outdoor activities which we enjoy very much. (3) the beautiful natural scenery may make us very excited. (4) we can fly kites and run after them excitedly and take a lot of photos against the magnificent scenes.,although women are usually considered the “gentle sex,” throughout history individual strong-nerved women have proved tougher than the ordinary man. joan of arc, the fifteenth century maid of