1、Chapter 2 Speech Sounds 2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology 2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions 2.3.2 Phonemes 2.3.3 Allophones,From phonetics to phonology語音學(xué)到音系學(xué),Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps

2、. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, map, lamb.,言語是一個連續(xù)的過程，所以發(fā)音器官不是從一系列互不相干的步驟中從一個音段進(jìn)行到下一個一段，實際上語音會持續(xù)的受到臨近音的影響。,例如，如果鼻輔音（如m之類）處于口腔元音（如map中的 ）之前，鼻音的部分特征就會延續(xù)，導(dǎo)致元音的起始帶有一定程度的鼻音性質(zhì)。這是因為再發(fā)鼻音的過程中軟腭下垂以便讓氣流通過鼻腔，而為了發(fā)音，軟腭必須回移到正常位置自然需要時間，而這個過程在開始發(fā)音時還未完成。同樣，當(dāng)音在m之前時，如lam

3、b,軟腭在發(fā)時就開始下降，為接下來的鼻音做好準(zhǔn)備。,3.1 Coarticulation（協(xié)同發(fā)音）,When such simultaneous（同時的） or overlapping（重疊）articulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.（協(xié)同發(fā)音）,當(dāng)涉及到這種同時或重合的發(fā)音時，我們稱這類過程為協(xié)同發(fā)音。,If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory

4、 coarticulation（先期協(xié)同發(fā)音）.如果發(fā)音的變化是傾向于后面音的音質(zhì)（如lamb)就稱之為先期協(xié)同發(fā)音。 If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation（后滯協(xié)同發(fā)音）, as is the case of map.如果發(fā)音顯示出前面語音的影響（如map），則稱之為后滯協(xié)同發(fā)音。,The fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenome

5、non we call nasalization（鼻音化）.lamb中的元音 具有后面鼻音的某些性質(zhì)，這種現(xiàn)象成為鼻音化。 To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we add a diacritic to the top of the symbol as 表示元音的鼻音化是在符號 上加一條浪線，即,p在peak中它是送氣音，在speak中它不是送氣音。,這個送氣的不帶聲雙唇塞音就要加變音符 即 ，而與之相對的不送氣音轉(zhuǎn)寫為p,（寬式語音轉(zhuǎn)寫） eg;我們常用普通符號r來代替 這個不常用的符號。,（嚴(yán)試語音轉(zhuǎn)寫）,Phonemes（音位）,Ph

6、onology（音系學(xué)） is not specifically concerned with the physical properties of the speech production system.(音系學(xué)并不特別關(guān)注語音系統(tǒng)的物質(zhì)特征） Phoneticians （語音學(xué)家）are concerned with how sounds differ in the way they are pronounced發(fā)音方法的不同 while phonologists（音系學(xué)家） are interested in the patterning of such sounds and the

7、rules that underlie such variations搭配模式和音變背后的規(guī)律.,Crystal: Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not.（音系分析所依賴的原則是；某些語音能夠?qū)е略~或短語意義上的變化，而有些語音則不導(dǎo)致這樣的變化） Minimal pairs test（最小對比對測試） Take a word, replace o

8、ne sound by another, and see whether a different meaning results. It can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning. It leads to the identification of phonemes(音位）.,The word phoneme（音位） simply refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast: the existence of a minimal pai

9、r automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.（音位是“明顯的語音對立單位”：最小對比對的存在自動賦予具有區(qū)別對立功能的語音以音位的地位。) By selecting one type of sound instead of another we can distinguish one word from another.(通過語音的選擇，我們得以區(qū)分不同的詞）,By convention, phonemic transcriptions are placed between

10、 slant lines (/ /) while phonetic transcriptions are placed between square brackets ( ).（習(xí)慣上，音位轉(zhuǎn)寫放在雙斜線（/ /）內(nèi)，而語音轉(zhuǎn)寫放在方括號（ ）內(nèi)。 In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the broad transcriptions.（就語音學(xué)來說，音位轉(zhuǎn)寫代表的是“寬式轉(zhuǎn)寫”。）,Allophones, are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme Suc

11、h variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.（ 是兩個不同的音子，即音位/p/的變化形式。） . In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution because they never occur in the same context；（該例中的兩個音位變體處于互補(bǔ)分布狀態(tài)，它們從不出現(xiàn)在相同的環(huán)境中。）,This phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of

12、phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation.（這種隨位置不同音位讀音出現(xiàn)差別的現(xiàn)象稱為音位變體現(xiàn)象或同音位變體。,Velarization: clear l and dark l(清晰l和模糊l) Think about tell and telling! Phonetic similarity（發(fā)音近似性）: the allophones of a phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.（必須在發(fā)音上近似） Free variants

13、and free variation（自由變體和自由變體現(xiàn)象）,Free variation,Sometimes a phoneme may also have FREE VARIANTS. For example, the final consonant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. In this case, it is the same word pronounced in two different ways: jUo a

14、nd jUo, with the 14 diacritic “ ” indicating “no audible release” in IPA symbols, i.e. the sound is not actually heard. The difference may be caused by dialect or personal habit, instead of by any distribution rule. Such a phenomenon is called FREE VARIATION. Free variation is often found in regional differences. For example, most Americans pronounce the word either as h9C?_ whereas most British people say HC?. Individual differences may also determine the use of cHqDjRm or cHqDjRm for the word direction.,*當(dāng)音在 m之前時，如lamb,軟腭在發(fā) 時就開始下降，為接下來的鼻音做好準(zhǔn)備。,*如果鼻輔音（如m之類）處于口