1、Steps involved in designing a course (Taba),diagnosis of needs formulation of objectives（realistic） selection of content organization of content selection of learning experiences organization of learning experiences determination of what to evaluate, and the means to evaluate,The components of a cur

2、riculum,A viewpoint on the nature of language,Your beliefs about which view of language should be emphasized will translate into beliefs about how the language should be learned. e.g. An emphasize on language as rule-governed may translate into the belief that learning a language means,Task,Complete

3、 the followings: An emphasize on language as rule-governed may translate into the belief that learning a language means An emphasize on language as meaning- based may be manifest in the belief that language in classroom should be An emphasize on language as socially constructed among people in disco

4、urse community may be manifest in the belief that,An emphasize on language as rule-governed may translate into the belief that learning a language means learning it accurately, with no grammatical errors. An emphasize on language as meaning- based may be manifest in the belief that language in class

5、room should be relevant and meaningful to the students in the class. An emphasize on language as socially constructed among people in discourse community may be manifest in the belief that learning a language requires an awareness of how language is used within a given community such as the classroo

6、m or neighborhood.,An educational-cultural viewpoint(View on how language should be learnt),Teachers can hold contradictory beliefs about the process, the roles , and the focus of learning and conversely for material in the next to appear to grow out of the previous one.,Structural-grammatical sylla

7、bus (3),Task 12 As we have already noted, all syllabus outlines or proposals are underpinned by assumptions about the nature of language and language learning. What assumptions about language and language learning do you imagine might underpin a grammatical syllabus?,Structural-grammatical syllabus

8、(3),The three assumptions behind most grammatical syllabuses are: language consists of a finite set of rules which can be combined in various ways to make meaning these rules can be learnt one by one, in an additive fashion, each item being, mastered on its own before being incorporated into the lea

9、rners pre-existing stock of knowledge. once learners have internalized the formal aspects of a given piece of language, they will automatically be able to use it in genuine communication outside the classroom.,Criticizing grammatical syllabus(1),During the 1970s, the use of structural syllabus came

10、under increasing criticisms. structurally-sequenced syllabuses misrepresented the nature of language. They did so in tending to focus on only one aspect of language, i.e. formal grammar. In reality, there is more than one aspect to language.,Criticizing grammatical syllabus(1),Task 13 How many diffe

11、rent communicative purposes can you think of for these statements? “This is a book.” “The cliffs are over there.”,Criticizing grammatical syllabus(1),Task 14 How many forms can you find to realize the following function? Function: requesting for a drink,Criticizing grammatical syllabus(1),So: 1. the

12、re is no one-to-one relationship between function and forms. Not only can a single form realize more than one function, but a given function can be realized by more than one form.,Criticizing grammatical syllabus(2),2. Grammatical complexity doesnt necessarily equate with learning difficulty. In oth

13、er words, whats grammatically complex will not necessary be that which is difficult to learn, and that which is grammatically simple will not necessarily be that which is easy to learn.,Criticizing grammatical syllabus(3),3. There are also arguments against grammatical grading of contents on the gro

14、und that grammatical grading distorts the language available to the learner. It could well interfere with language acquisition because language is more a global process than a linear process.,Criticizing grammatical syllabus(4),4Grammatical syllabuses fail to adequately reflect the changing views on

15、 the nature of language,Implications for syllabus design,Wider view of language Focusing not only on linguistic structures Focusing on communicative purposes for which language is used,Some linguists (Rutherford) think that the abandonment of grammar as the pivotal element in the syllabus may be pre

16、mature. They think a major task for syllabus designers is to identify those aspects of the grammatical system from which learners can generate the most powerful generalizations. Back,Notional syllabus,organized around themes relating to broad areas of meaning such as space, time, obligation Back,Fun

17、ctional syllabus,focuses on the social function of language: invitation, suggestions, apologies, Back,Situational syllabus,e.g. tourist phrase book, secretarys English Back,Notional-functional syllabus (also called notional syllabus),A notional-functional syllabus is contrasted with a grammatical sy

18、llabus or structural syllabus (one which consists of a sequence of graded language items) or a situational syllabus (one which consists of situations and the relevant language items) A notional-functional syllabus contains: A the meaning and concepts the learner needs in order to communicate and the

19、 language needed to express them. These concepts and meanings are called notions. b. the language needed to express different functions. These notions and functions are used to develop learning /teaching units in a language course.,Task,What difficulties do you envisage for a syllabus designer attem

20、pting to address the issues of grading & sequencing from a functional-notional perspective?,Criticizing notional-functional syllabus,selection and grading of items are very complex the inventories of functions and notions do not necessarily reflect the way languages are learnt any more than do inven

21、tories of grammatical points and lexical items. (Widdowson: 1979) dividing language into discrete units of whatever type misrepresents the nature of language as communication.,Communicative Syllabus,selects various linguistic, thematic or functional elements that are based on learners needs Back,Tas

22、k-based syllabus (1),It has been put by Prabhu in his discussion of the Bangalore Project. His central hypothesis is that “structure can best be learned when attention is focused on meaning” In Bangalore solution, the tasks were prepared by the teachers alone, on the basis of their experience and th

23、eir knowledge of the learners stage of conceptual development as well as in terms of the reaction they got in the classroom In 1984, the project was cautiously but favorably evaluated.,Task-based syllabus (2),(in language teaching) a syllabus which is organized around tasks rather than in terms of g

24、rammar or vocabulary. For example the syllabus may suggest a variety of different kinds of tasks which the learners are expected to carry out in the language. It has been argued that this is a more effective way of learning a language since it provides a purpose for the learning and use of a language other than simply learning language items for their own sake.,Features of tasked based syllabus:,-is associated with the work of Prabhu who has developed a “l(fā)earning-centered approach to language” -at the basis of Probhu