1、1. Types of thesis (1) Empirical studies Introduction: development of the problem under investigation and statement of the purpose of the investigation Method: description of the method used to conduct the investigation Results: report of the results that were found,(2) Theoretical theses The author

2、s traces the development of theory in order to expand and refine theoretical constructs. Ordinarily, the author presents a new theory. Alternatively the author may analyze existing theory, pointing our flaws or demonstrating the superiority of one theory over another. In this type of theoretical ana

3、lysis, the author,customarily examines a theorys internal and external consistency, that is, whether a theory is self-contradictory and whether the theory and empirical observation contradict each other. 2. Abstract 2.1 An abstract of an empirical study should describe the following points: the prob

4、lem under investigation, in one sentence if possible,(2) the subjects, specifying pertinent characteristics, such as number, type, age, sex, and genus and species; (3) the experimental method, including the apparatus, data-gathering procedures, complete test names; (4) the findings, including statis

5、tical significance levels; (5) the conclusions and the implications or applications.,2.2 Abstract for theoretical thesis: the topic, in one sentence the purpose, thesis, or organizing construct and the scope of the article; the sources used (e.g. personal observation, published literature); the conc

6、lusions 3. Introduction 3.1 Introduce the problem,Before writing the introduction, consider (1) What is the point of the study? (2) How do the hypothesis and the experimental design relate to the problem? (3) What are the theoretical implications of the study, and how does the study relate to previo

7、us work in the area? (4) What are the theoretical propositions tested, and how were they derived?,A good introduction answers these questions in a paragraph or two and, by summarizing the relevant arguments and the data, gives the reader a firm sense of what was done and why. 3.2 Develop the backgro

8、und If you summarize earlier works, avoid nonessential details; instead, emphasize pertinent findings, relevant methodological,issues, and major conclusions. Refer the reader to general surveys or reviews of the topic if they are available. Demonstrate the logical continuity between previous and pre

9、sent work. Develop the problem with enough breadth and clarify to make it generally understood by as wide a professional audience as possible. Do not let the goal of brevity mislead you into writing a statement intelligible only to the specialist.,3.3 State the purpose and rationale After you have i

10、ntroduced the problem and developed the background material, you are in a position to tell what you did. Make this statement in the closing paragraphs of the introduction. At this point, a formal statement of your hypotheses give clarity to the paper.,4. Method The method section describes in detail

11、 how the study was conducted. Such a description enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of your methods and the reliability and the validity of your results. It also permits experienced investigators to replicate the study if they do desire.,Identifying subsections These usually include

12、descriptions of the participants, the apparatus (or materials), and the procedure. participants: when humans are the participants, report the procedures for selecting and assigning them and the agreements and payments made. Report their sex and age. Sometimes, you must describe the group specificall

13、y-for example, in terms of racial and,ethnic designation, national origin, level of education, health status, and language preference and use: “the second group included 40 Central American men between the ages of 20 and 30 years, all of whom had emigrated from EL Salvador, had at least 12 years of

14、education, were permanent residents of the United States for at least 10 years, and lived in Washington DC.” Give the total number of subjects and the,number assigned to each experimental condition. If any did not complete the experiment, state how many and explain why they did not continue. (2) App

15、aratus The subsection on apparatus briefly describe the apparatus or materials used and their function in the experiment. A detailed description of complex equipment may be included in an appendix.,(3) Procedure The subsection on procedure summarizes each step in the execution of the research. Inclu

16、de the instructions to the participants, the formation of the groups, and the specific experimental manipulations. Describe randomization, counterbalancing, and other control features in the design. Summarize or paraphrase instructions.,5. Results The results section summarizes the data collected an

17、d the statistical treatment of them. First, briefly state the main results or findings. Then report the data in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions. Discussing the implications of the results is not appropriately here. Mention all relevant results, including those that run counter to the hy

18、pothesis. Do not include individual scores and raw data.,Tables and figures To report the data, choose the medium that presents them clearly and economically. Tables provide exact values and can efficiently illustrate main effects. Figures of professional quality attract the readers eye and best ill

19、ustrate interactions and general comparisons, but they are not quite as precise as tables.,Style for Metric Units,(2) Statistical presentation When reporting inferential statistics (e.g. t-test, F-test and so on), include information about the obtained magnitude or value of the test, the degrees of

20、freedom, the probability level, and the direction of the effect. Be sure to include descriptive statistics (e.g., means or medians).,6. Discussion After presenting the results, you are in a position to evaluate and interpret their implications, especially with respect to your original hypothesis. Yo

21、u are free to examine, interpret, and qualify the results, as well as to draw inferences from them. Emphasize any theoretical consequences of the results and the validity of your conclusions.,Open the discussion with a clear statement of the support or nonsupport for your original hypothesis. Simila

22、rities and differences between your results and the work of others should clarify and confirm your conclusions. You may remark on certain shortcomings of the study, but do not dwell on every flaw. Negative results should be accepted.,7. Contribution (1) What have I contributed here? (2) How has my s

23、tudy helped to resolve the original problem? (3) What conclusions and theoretical implications can I draw from my study? The responses to these questions are the core of your contribution.,8. Multiple experiments If you are integrating several experiments in one paper, describe the method an results

24、 of each experiment separately. If appropriate, include for each experiment a short discussion of the results, or combine the discussion with the description of results (e.g.,results and discussion). 9. References All citations in your thesis must appear in the reference list. 10. Appendix Some exam

25、ples of material suitable for an appendix are (a) a new computer program specifically designed for your research and unavailable elsewhere, (b) an unpublished test and its validation, (c) a complicated mathematical proof, a list of stimulus,materials (e.g. those used in psycholinguistic research), a

26、nd (e) a detailed description of a complex piece of equipment. Include an appendix only if it helps readers to understand, evaluate, or replicate the study. Economy of expression Wordiness Wordiness can impede the ready grasp of ideas. Change based on the fact that to because, at the present time to

27、 now, for the,purpose of to simply for or to. Use this study instead of the present study when the context is clear. Change there were several students who completed to several students completed. Reason and because often appear in the same sentence; however, they have the same meaning, and therefor

28、e they should not be used together. Flowery writing is inappropriate in scientific style.,Redundancy: They were both alike A total of 68 participants Four different groups saw Instructions, which were exactly the same as those used Absolutely essential Has been previously found Small in size,the use

29、 of We Restrict your use of we to refer only to yourself and your coauthors (do not use we if you are the sole author of the paper). Poor: We usually classify bird song on the basis of frequency and temporal structure of the elements. Better: Researchers usually classify bird song on the basis of fr

30、equency and temporal structure of the elements.,Some alternatives to we to consider are people, humans, researchers, psychologists, cognitive psychologists, and so on. We is appropriate and useful as an anaphoric referent: Acceptable: Humans are passionate about health and pleasure. We yearn for a t

31、asty, fat-free chocolate cookie.,Unacceptable: We are passionate and yearn Acceptable As behaviorists, we tend to dispute Unacceptable We tend to dispute Grammar Verbs are vigorous, direct communicators.,Use the past tense Incorrect: Ramirez (1993) presents the same results. Correct: Ramirez (1993)

32、presented the same results. Result section: In Experiment 2, response varied.,The plural form Incorrect: The data indicates that Correct: The data indicate that Incorrect: The phenomena occurs every 100 years. Correct: The phenomena occur every 100 years.,Singular in context: The number of people in

33、 the state is growing. A pair of animals was in each cage. The couple is surrounded. Plural in context: A number of people are watching. A pair of animals were then yoked.,The use of adverb Incorrect: More importantly, the total amount of available long-term memory activation Correct: More important

34、, the total amount of available,(importantly means “in an important way”, not “this is important.”) Incorrect: Hopefully, this is not the case. Correct: I hope this is not the case. Between and and Incorrect: between 2.5-4.0 years of age Correct: between 2.5 and 4.0 years of age,Latin Abbreviation:

35、Use the following Latin abbreviation only in parenthetical materials: in non- parenthetical material, use the English translation of the Latin terms: cf. comparei.e. that is e.g. for example viz. namely etc. and so forth vs. versus, against,Eitheror Incorrect: The respondents either gave the worst answer or the best answer. Correct: The respondents gave either the worst answer or the best answer. The respondents either gave the worst answer or gave the best answer.,Incorrect: Our study included 60 subjects. Correct: Sixty people participate