語言文化論文-從語用學(xué)的禮貌原則看英語中的委婉語【Abstract】Euphemism,cosmeticwords,isnotonlyalingualphenomenon,butalsoaculturalandsocialphenomenon.Itislikeamirror,reflectingthevalues,aestheticconceptionsandmoralconceptsinsomeextent.Euphemismplaysanimportantpartinsocialcommunication.Itislikelubethatavoidshurtingtheotherpartysfeeling.Itoilsthehumanrelationshipincommunicationandhelpstosavefaceofcommunicators.Ifpeoplemakefulluseofeuphemism,itcanaccelerateandfacilitatehumancommunication.Thispaperelaboratesonthefeaturesandsocialfunctionsofeuphemism.AnditfocusesontherelationshipsbetweenitspolitefunctionsandPolitenessPrinciple.ThisthesisiscomposedofsixpartswithChapterFourandFiveasitscore:Thefirstchapterfocusesontheoriginanddefinitionsofeuphemism.Thesecondchapterdiscussesthefeaturesofeuphemisminmanyways.Thethirdchaptertalksaboutthesocialfunctionsofeuphemismfromtheangleofpragmatics.Thefourthchapterformsthebasisofthewholeresearchbyconnectingeuphemismwithpolitenessandface-savingtheory.ThefifthchaptercentersoneuphemismandPolitenessPrinciple.Thelastchapterconcludesthewholethesis.AppropriateuseofEnglisheuphemismcancontributealottosuccessfulmessageexchange.【KeyWords】euphemism；socialfunctions；PolitenessPrinciple；facewant【摘要】委婉語是一種語言現(xiàn)象，一種文化現(xiàn)象，更是一種社會現(xiàn)象，在一定程度上，它反映了社會的價值觀，審美觀和美德觀。委婉語在社會交際中發(fā)揮著重要作用。日常的約定俗成的委婉語能起潤滑劑的作用，通過委婉語，可以避免語言過于直露而給對方造成傷害。它是語言使用中人們用來協(xié)調(diào)人際關(guān)系的有效潤滑劑，是保全交際各方面子的重要手段。很多中外學(xué)者曾從不同的角度對英語委婉語進行了長期的研究并取得了可喜的成果。本文主要研討了委婉語的特點，社會功用，并從語用學(xué)的角度分析了委婉語的社會功用，禮貌原則及面子問題。本文分為六個部分。第四和第五章是文章的重點。第一章主要探討了委婉語的定義及起源。第二章從很多方面概括了委婉語的特點。第三章從語用的角度分析了委婉語的社會功用。第四章把委婉語與禮貌，面子保全論聯(lián)系在一起，是本文的核心。第五章側(cè)重于委婉語貌與禮貌原則的關(guān)系。本文的實踐意義在于其分析結(jié)論有助于保證信息傳遞的順利進行并促進人們的日常交流?！娟P(guān)鍵詞】委婉語；社會功用；禮貌原則；面子1.IntroductionThereisahumor:OnceaParistouristresidedinUK.Alandladytoldhimsadlythat,“Myhusbandhasjustpassedtotheotherside.”Theguestlookedfromthefenceofthegardenbutsawnoone,feelingconfused.Thelandladyexplained:“Imeanheskickedthebucket.”Theguestcomfortedherthat:“Ihopehisfootwillbebettersoon.”Thelandladyfeltunintelligiblyandsaid:“No,hewasnthere,hesnuffedityouknow.”Theguestwonderedandsaid:“Butyouvegotelectricityhere.”Thereasonswhytheguestdidntanswerproperlyarethathedidntrealizethatthelandladyusedeuphemism,nordidheunderstandthe“conversationalimplicature”ofeuphemism.Whatthelandladywantedtosayisthatherhusbanddied.ThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreekword“euphemos”,meaningauspicious/good/fortunatespeechwhichinturnisderivedfromtheGreekroot-wordseu,good/well+pheme,speech/speaking.Theeuphemewasoriginallyawordorphraseusedinplaceofareligiouswordorphrasethatshouldnotbespokenaloud(Suchastaboo).Theprimaryexamplesoftaboowordsrequiringtheuseofaeuphemismaretheunspeakablenamesforadeity,suchasPersephone,Hecate,NemesisorYahweh.Byspeakingonlywordsfavorabletothegodsorspirits,thespeakerattemptedtoproducegoodfortunebyremainingingoodfavorwiththem.“EuphemismisdefinedintheNewEditionoftheOxfordConciseDictionary(1976)asSubstitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshordirectone；expressionthussubstituted.INWebstersNewCollegiateDictionary(1973)thedefinitionreads,Substitutionofanagreeableorinoffensiveexpressionforonethatmayoffendorsuggestsomethingunpleasant.”1EuphemismisanimportantrhetoricalmeansinEnglish.Itplaysanimportantroleinpeoplesdailycommunication.Itisnotonlyaculturalphenomenon,butalsoasocialphenomenon.Itjustlikesamirror,whichreflectssomesocialandpsychologicalphenomena.2.Featuresofeuphemism2.1IndirectandimplicitThemostimportantcharacterofeuphemismisindirectandimplicit.Euphemismalwaysgivespeoplehintsinaroundaboutway.Wecaninferthedeepermeaningandintentionfromthecontext.Forexample,whensomeoneisill,wealwayssayheisundertheweather.Ifsomeoneismad,wesayheissoftinmind.2.2UniversalityUniversalityissomethingthatiswell-knownandacceptedbyallofthepeople.Thougheuphemismisindirectanditdoesntcomestraighttothepoint,peoplecaneasilyinferitsdeeperimplication.Sometaboosconnectedwithsex,death,orbodyfunctionsarereplacedbyeuphemisms.Andthepublichasacceptedthiskindofuse.Forexample,whenwerefertodeath,weseldomsay“die”.Weusetheexpression“passaway”.2.3ThefeatureoftimesThechangesoflanguagedependontheneedandchangesofthesociety.Andeuphemismundergoesaprocessofmetabolism.Itbearsamarkedbrandoftimes.Forexample,“Sheispregnanthasmanydifferenteuphemisticexpressionsindifferenteras.(1)Shehascanceledallhersocialengagements.(1856)(2)Sheisinaninterestingcondition.(1880)(3)Sheisinadelicatecondition.(1895)(4)Sheisknittinglittlebootees.(1910)(5)Sheisinafamilyway.(1920)(6)Sheisexpecting.(1935)(7)Sheispregnant.(1956)”2Butafter1960s,euphemismsofpregnantdevelopslowlybecauseinmoderntimes,peoplearenotsoimplicit.Theyalwaysmentionthingsdirectly.Andnow,thephenomenonofpregnantisacheerfulthing.Peoplewillnotbeshywhenmentioningit.“Thewordgay,atfirst,itmeanshappyandhomosexuality.Butaseuphemismdevelops,thewordgayonlyremindsusthemeaningofhomosexuality.Thus,peopledontusetheexpressionWeareyoungandgay.”32.4RegionalfeatureIneuphemism,therearesomeregionaldifferences.AnAustralianwomanmarriedtoanAmericanman.TheyspenttheirhoneymooninAmerica.Andoneday,thecoupleintendedtogotoapartytogether.Butthebridegroomcouldntfindasuitablefulldress.Thebridetookoutabirthdaysuitthatshegavehimasapresentfewdaysagoandsaid:“Whynotwearyourbirthdaysuit?”However,thewholefamilyallastonishedbecauseinAmericanEnglish,“inonesbirthdaysuit”4istheeuphemisticexpressionof“naked”.Sothisembarrassingsituationresultedfromtheregionaldifferencesineuphemism.Therearetwocausesofregionaldifferences.Firstisaregionalculturaldifference.Indifferentregions,theculturetherewilleffectthedevelopmentofeuphemism.Forexample,“gotow.c.”.IntheBalliolcollegeofOxfordUniversity,studentscall“gototoiletastovisitLadyPeriam”5becausethetoiletsofthatcollegewerebuiltonthelanddonatedbyLadyPeriam.Ofcourse,Americanswillnotagreewiththisexpression.“Secondisthedifferenceofgeographicenvironment.Forexample,inseaside,deathwouldbeconnectedwithseaandtide.Theymayusegowiththetidetoexpressdie.Onthecontrary,inAmericanwestmountainareas,theeuphemismfordieis(gone)overtherangeortocrosstheGreatDivide.Thesearethetypicalregionaleuphemisms.”62.5DiversityoflingualregionSomeonethinksthatonlyupperandmiddleclassuseeuphemism.Butthisconclusionistooabsolute.Wecananalyzethisinthreeaspects.2.5.1Differencesofgenderorage“Astudyshowsthatfemaleusemoreeuphemismsthanmaledo.ThereisasayinginEnglish:horsesweat；menperspire；youngladiesglow.(Brock,1973:73)Womenuseobscurewordtoexpresstheactionofsweat.Andthedifferenceofgenderandageusuallyinfluencethechoiceofthesynonymsofeuphemism.Forinstance,thereareavarietyofexpressionsaboutgototoilet.Menusetheexpressiontoshootalion.Adultsmaysaytogotow.c.Andchildrensaytogotothepot.”72.5.2DifferenceofprofessionoridentityEuphemismchangeswhiletheprofessionandidentitychange.Thisisasynchronyvariation.Theword“die”canbeusedinmanydifferentways.“Inmilitary,peopleusetheexpressiontolosenumberofonesmess.ThisexpressionorientsfromthemesssystemofUKnavy.However,inthepress,peopleoftenusethewordthirtybecausetheyusuallymark30intheendofanewsarticle,whichmeansending.”82.5.3DifferenceofstyleorcontextStylistically,theword“die”hashundredsofeuphemisms.Butindailycommunication,peoplemayuse“tobegone”or“tobenomore”.Inobituary,peopleuse“topassaway”or“todepart”.Italsohassomewittyexpressions,forinstance,“topopoff”or“tokickthebucket”.Euphemismisrestrictedbythecontext.Forexample,“Onthe14thofMarch,ataquartertothreeintheafternoon,thegreatestlivingthinkerceasedtothink.(F.Engels,SpeechattheGravesideofKarlMarx)”9Thisexampleinvolvesthepassingawayofagreatman.Andthephrase“ceasedtothink”echoes“thinker”.Thiseuphemismproducesagoodeffect.3.Pragmaticfunctionsofeuphemism3.1Taboofunction“Tabooisthemainpsychologicalbasisoftheemergenceofeuphemism.Euphemismistheavoidanceoftheunpleasant,inelegantthings.AfamoussociolinguistMr.ChenYuanoncesaid:Generallyspeaking,thecomingintobeingofeuphemismallbeginsfromtaboo.Fromtheoriginofeuphemism,wecanseethattabooisthefirstfunctionofeuphemism.Euphemismhasbeenusingforalongtime,anditiscloselyrelatedtotaboo.Infact,euphemismdatesbacktothelanguagetaboointheearlyperiodofhumancivilization.Whenpeopletrytoavoidandgiveuptaboowords,theyhavetofindanotherwordtoreplacethisvacancyatthesametime.Hence,peoplecreatedeuphemism.”10Therearesometaboothings,suchasbirth,death,funeral,sex,nakedness,defecation,andurinate.Iftheyareexpresseddirectly,theyarecalledtaboowordsandthefeelingstheygiveusarevulgar,crudeandharsh,whereasiftheyareexpressedindirectly,theyarecalledeuphemism,andtheimpressionstheymadeonusareelegant,implicitandpolite.Theevadingfunctionofeuphemismalsoworkstoday.Sometaboonotionscannotbeeasilyremovedfrompeoplesmind.Thoughscienceandtechnologyarehighlydevelopedtoday,theword“death”isthetaboowordstoallnations.Thustherearealotofeuphemismsrelatedwithit.“Suchaspassaway,answerthefinalcall,beasleepinJesus,besafeinthearmsofJesus,beatrest,becalledtoGod,behomeandfree,beinAbrahamsbosom,crosstheRiverJordan,finalsleep,gohome,gotomeetonesmaker,gotoonesownplace,joinonesancestors,jointhegreatmajority,returntodust,withGod,benolongerwithus,paythedebtofnature,tickthebucket,etc.”11“Amongthose,one-way-ticketisthesynonymofdie.Itreflectsthespeakersexperienceoflife.Lifeisjustliketravel.Peoplesetouttotravel,butwhentheyarrivetothetermination,theycannotgoback.Inthepast,peopleoftenusedgraveyardtoexpresstheplacewherethedeadsleeppeacefully.Buttheassociationsitgivesusarehorrifiedandgloomy.Sonow,peopleusefuneralhomeandmemorialparktoreplacethem.Insuchaway,itcomfortspeople.”123.2PolitefunctionPolitefunctionofeuphemismistoavoidinelegantthingsandmakepeoplefeelpleasant.AsJoannaChannellputinherbookVagueLanguage“Vaguenessisusedasonewayofadheringtothepolitenessrulesforaparticularculture,andofnotthreateningface.”13Itmeansthatinreallife,whenpeoplemeetwithsomeunpleasantthingsorbehaviors,theyusuallychoosesomevagueexpressionstoavoidmakingboldorhurtingothersfeeling-touseeuphemism.Itisharshtosaysomeoneisdeaf,sopeopleuse“auditory-impaired”toreplaceit.Theysoundmoregracefully.“WhenEnglish-speakersrefertotheappearance,theydontusetheworduglyorawful,whichhasstrongderogatorysense.Instead,theyusethewordplain-lookingornotpretty.”14Westernersaresensitivetoage.Intheiropinion,“old”equalsto“useless”insomeextent.Inordernottohurtthefeelingandself-esteemoftheold,“oldmen”arereplacedby“seniorcitizens”or“seasonedmen”.Fortheword“senior”hasmanymeanings.Except“older”,italsomeanshigherinrankorauthority.Andtheword“seasoned”meansexperienced.“Followingaresomeeuphemismsaboutprofession.”15HarshexpressioneuphemismbutcherMeattechnologistChimneyworkerChimneyconsultantfiremanFirefighterGarbagemanSanitationengineerhairdresserHairstylisthousekeeperHouseholdexecutivePress-agentPublicrelationcounselorPrisonguardCorrectionalofficer3.3CoveringupfunctionInVaguenessLanguage,Channellstatedcoveringupfunctionasdeliberatelywithholdinginformation.Whatissocalled“coverup”means“notgivinginformationwhichthespeakerpossessesandwhichcouldbeappropriateinthesituation.”16Westernpoliticallifegivesbirthtoeuphemism.Somepoliticiansandnewsmediashavemadegooduseofthevaguenessofeuphemismtocoverupthefactsofsomeeventsforthepurposeofmakingthepolitics,economy,andmilitarymoresteady.Concealingthedarksideofsocietyistoalleviatethesocialcontradictionscausedbysex,violence,poverty,unemployment,andcrime.Therearesomeeuphemismsaboutsocialphenomena.“Venerealdisease”hasbeenbeautifiedas“socialdisease”.“Rape”,akindofcrime,ismentionedcasuallyas“interferewith”；“prostitutionbecameahigh-soundingprofession-theoldestprofessionintheworld.”17Inpoliticiansview,violenceisakindofactionanddismissalisalso“l(fā)ayoff”.Peopledontneedtobesurprisedatthesephenomena.Inwesterncountries,polit