QUANTIFYINGTHEIMPACTOFTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADE1INTRODUCTION,THEIMPACTOFSTANDARDSANDTECHNICALREGULATIONSONTRADEISATTHEFOREFRONTOFPOLICYDISCUSSIONS1THISISPARTICULARLYTRUEINRELATIONTOCHALLENGESCONFRONTINGDEVELOPINGNATIONSASTHEYSEEKTOINCREASEPRODUCTIONFORGLOBALEXPORTMARKETSINREGARDTOVOLUNTARYSTANDARDS,SUCHASTHOSEINTHEINTERNATIONALORGANIZATIONFORSTANDARDIZATIONISO9000SERIESONQUALITYFOREXAMPLE,DEVELOPINGNATIONSFACECONTINUEDCONSTRAINTSINDIFFUSINGBESTPRACTICEINFORMATIONONSTANDARDSANDRESOURCESNECESSARYTOAIDINTHEADOPTIONOFAPPROPRIATEPROCESSANDPRODUCTIONMETHODSWORLDBANK2000INADDITION,ASTRADITIONALTRADEPROTECTIONMEASURESSUCHASTARIFFS,QUOTAS,ANDVOLUNTARYEXPORTRESTRAINTVERAGREEMENTSHAVEBEENELIMINATEDTHROUGHOUTTHE1990S,BARRIERSTOTRADEREFLECTEDINUSEOFDOMESTICTECHNICALREGULATIONSHAVEBECOMEMUCHMOREIMPORTANTCHANNELSTHROUGHWHICHTRADEISBLOCKED2THESUCCESSOFMULTILATERALLIBERALIZATIONTHROUGHTRADETALKSENDINGINCONCLUSIONOFTHEURUGUAYROUNDIN1994HASHIGHLIGHTEDTHEIMPORTANCEOFNONTARIFFBARRIERSINNATIONALSTANDARDSCERTAINLYNOTALLMARKETACCESSCOMMITMENTSINTHEWORLDTRADEORGANIZATIONWTOAGREEMENTSCONCLUDEDINTHE1994HAVEBEENFULLYIMPLEMENTEDORENFORCED3NORISITTHECASETHATBARRIERSTOTRADESUCHASSUBSIDIESTOAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONORPROHIBITIONONFOREIGNINVESTMENTINSERVICES,FOREXAMPLE,HAVEBEENCOMPLETELYELIMINATEDITISCLEAR,HOWEVER,THATDOMESTICREGULATIONAFFECTINGIMPORTSTHROUGHTECHNICALREQUIREMENTS,TESTING,CERTIFICATION,ANDLABELINGREPRESENTONEOFTHEMOSTIMPORTANTNEWAREASFORFOCUSINCONTINUINGLIBERALIZATIONEFFORTSMANDATORYREGULATIONSIMPOSEDBYGOVERNMENTSATTHEBORDERCANPRODUCESERIOUSDISTORTIONSINCOMMERCIALMARKETSDOMESTICREGULATORYSYSTEMSMAYRESTRAINTRADEANDLIMITMARKETENTRYTHROUGHENVIRONMENTAL,HEALTH,ORSAFETYMANDATESNOTBASEDONINTERNATIONALNORMS,FOREXAMPLETHESETYPESOFMARKETACCESSREQUIREMENTSMAYORMAYNOTBEDISCRIMINATORYWITHINTHECONTEXTOFWTODISCIPLINES,INCLUDINGCOMMITMENTSUNDERTAKENBYWTOMEMBERSINTHEAGREEMENTONTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADE1THISPAPERFOCUSESONPRODUCTORPROCESSSTANDARDSRELATEDTOGOODSANDAGRICULTURALCOMMODITIESITDOESNOTASSESSSTANDARDSASTHEYMAYBEAPPLIEDINTHESERVICESECTORORLABORSTANDARDS2THEREAREANUMBEROFRECENTSTUDIESTHATASSESSTHECHANGINGNATUREOFBARRIERSTOTRADEINNONTARIFFAREAS,INCLUDINGTHOSEOFPARTICULARIMPORTANCETODEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESFORADISCUSSIONOFTHESEISSUESSEEHERTELANDMARTIN1999,HERTEL,HOEKMAN,ANDMARTIN2000,AMONGOTHERS3FORANOVERVIEWOFTHESTATUSOFIMPLEMENTATIONOFURUGUAYROUNDCOMMITMENTSOFPARTICULARIMPORTANCETODEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESSEEFINGERANDSCHULER1999THEDISCUSSIONINWILSON2000OUTLINESSPECIFICIMPLEMENTATIONDIFFICULTIESFACEDBYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESINTHEAGREEMENTONTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADESEEALSO“TECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADECHALLENGESANDOPPORTUNITIESFORDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,STATEMENTOFTHEWORLDBANK,TECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADECOMMITTEE,WORLDTRADEORGANIZATION,GENEVA,24FEBRUARY20002AGREEMENTONTHEAPPLICATIONOFSANITARYANDPHYTOSANITARYSTANDARDSINSUM,WHETHERSANCTIONEDORNOTUNDERMULTILATERALTRADERULES,TECHNICALREGULATIONSIMPOSEDONTRADEINGOODSANDAGRICULTURALPRODUCTSAREAFFECTINGTRADEPATTERNS,THEABILITYOFPRODUCERSTOENTERNEWEXPORTMARKETS,ANDALSOCONSUMERCOSTSIMPORTANTQUESTIONSREMAIN,HOWEVER,THEANSWERSTOWHICHWILLDIRECTLYEFFECTTRADEPOLICYCHOICESANDTHESUCCESSORFAILUREOFLIBERALIZATIONEFFORTSINWHICHDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESHAVEADIRECTSTAKEWHATISTHESPECIFICECONOMICIMPACTOFDIFFERINGTECHNICALREGULATIONSACROSSNATIONALBOUNDARIESWEHAVEFIVEYEARSOFEXPERIENCEWITHTHEWTOAGREEMENTSMENTIONEDABOVE,ASWELLASDETAILEDWORKUNDERWAYINREGIONALTRADETALKSSUCHASTHEASIAPACIFICECONOMICCOOPERATIONAPECONSTANDARDSINDUSTRYCALLSTOFOCUSONCOSTSOFREGULATORYBARRIERSTOTRADEHAVEACCELERATEDOVERTHEPASTDECADETHEREHAVEBEENFEWATTEMPTS,HOWEVER,TODETERMINETHEECONOMICIMPACTOFDIFFERINGSTANDARDSANDCONFORMITYASSESSMENTREQUIREMENTSBASEDONRIGOROUSEMPIRICALANALYSISANDRESEARCHTHEFIRSTSECTIONEXAMINESTHEPOLICYCONTEXTDRIVINGTHENEEDFORNEWDATAANDEMPIRICALEVIDENCEONTHETRADEEFFECTOFREGULATIONANDSTANDARDSWEDISCUSSTHERISINGINCIDENCEOFTECHNICALREGULATIONSASINSTRUMENTSOFCOMMERCIALPOLICYINTRADEDISPUTESTHISSECTIONALSODISCUSSESTHEPARTICULARCONCERNSOFDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESINTHEDEBATEOVERSTANDARDSDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESMUSTSHOULDERADDITIONALCOSTSINMEETINGMANDATORYGOVERNMENTSTANDARDSTOSERVEEXPORTMARKETSINADDITION,WENOTETHATDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESALSOHAVEINPLACEDOMESTICREGULATORYPOLICIESAFFECTINGIMPORTSTHATCONTINUETOACTASPROTECTIONISTBARRIERSSHIELDINGINEFFICIENTDOMESTICPRODUCERSFROMCOMPETITIONTHETHIRDSECTIONOFTHEPAPERPROVIDESABRIEFOVERVIEWOFTHEROLEOFSTANDARDSINTRADEWETHENDISCUSSTHEJUSTIFICATIONSFORVOLUNTARYSTANDARDSANDMANDATORYTECHNICALREGULATIONSTHEYAREADDRESSEDINTERMSOFMARKETFAILURESSUCHASASYMMETRICINFORMATIONABOUTPRODUCTQUALITY,HEALTHMAINTENANCE,ANDNETWORKCOHERENCE,NOTINGPARTICULARISSUESTHATARISEINTHECROSSBORDERCONTEXTSTANDARDSHAVEIMPACTSONBOTHSTATICANDDYNAMICMARKETFAILURES,SUGGESTINGTHEREARESUBTLEEFFICIENCYANDWELFARETRADEOFFSTHEFOURTHSECTIONTURNSTOASURVEYOFMETHODOLOGICALAPPROACHESTHATHAVEBEENUSEDTOANALYZESTANDARDSWHICHWEBELIEVEMAYBEEXTENDEDANDIMPROVEDOURMAINPURPOSEINTHISSECTIONLIESINIDENTIFYINGTECHNIQUESTHATAREPRACTICALANDMAYBEFRUITFULLYEXTENDEDTOTHEEMPIRICALANALYSISOFSTANDARDSANDTRADETHECONTRIBUTIONOFTHEPAPER,THEREFORE,ISTHEIDENTIFICATIONOFCONCRETESTEPSTHATCOULDBETAKENTOMOVEFORWARDAPRACTICALRESEARCHPROGRAMOFEMPIRICALWORKASDISCUSSEDINTHEFINALSECTION,SUCHSTEPSWOULDINCLUDE1ADMINISTERINGFIRMLEVELSURVEYSINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,2CONFORMITYASSESSMENTINVOLVESTESTING,CERTIFICATION,LABORATORYACCREDITATION,ANDRELATEDLABELINGREQUIREMENTSFORACOMPREHENSIVEDISCUSSIONOFTHESEPROCEDURESANDRELATIONSHIPTOTRADESEE,NATIONALRESEARCHCOUNCIL19953DEVISINGMETHODSFORASSESSINGTHETRADERESTRICTIVENESSOFSTANDARDS,ANDESTABLISHINGECONOMETRICAPPROACHESTHATCOULDBEAPPLIEDTOMICRODATAFORUNDERSTANDINGTHEROLEOFSTANDARDSINEXPORTDYNAMICSSTANDARDSANDTHENEWTRADEAGENDAWHYECONOMICANALYSISMATTERSTHEREAREANUMBEROFREASONSWHYEMPIRICALWORKONTECHNICALANDREGULATORYBARRIERSTOTRADEISPARTICULARLYIMPORTANTINRELATIONTOTHENEWTRADEAGENDADEMANDFOREMPIRICALDATAANDANALYSISOFTHETRADEIMPACTOFSTANDARDSISBEINGDRIVENINPARTBYTHESIMPLEFACTTHATTARIFFBARRIERSANDTRADITIONALNONTARIFFMEASURESSUCHASQUOTASHAVEBEENSIGNIFICANTLYCURTAILED,ASNOTEDABOVEWEKNOWAGREATDEALMOREABOUTHOWTARIFFSORSUBSIDIESAFFECTTRADEANDTHEREFORETHEIMPLICATIONSOFFURTHERREDUCTIONSINTHESEPROTECTIVEMEASURESTOINFORMTRADEPOLICYDEBATEANDDECISIONMAKINGTHANISKNOWNABOUTHOWNONTARIFF,TECHNICALBARRIERSAFFECTTRADEFOREXAMPLE,ITISESTIMATEDTHATREDUCINGBY40PERCENTTARIFFSANDEXPORTSUBSIDIESINAGRICULTUREPRODUCESA60BILLIONPERYEARRISEINREALGLOBALINCOMEHERTEL,ANDERSON,FRANCOISANDMARTIN1999MOREOVER,BASEDONSOUNDEMPIRICALEVIDENCEANDDATA,ONEISREASONABLYCONFIDENTINSTATINGTHATAKEYFOCUSONREDUCTIONSININDUSTRIALTARIFFSINANEWROUNDOFTRADENEGOTIATIONSWOULDSIGNIFICANTLYBENEFITGLOBALWELFAREFOREXAMPLE,HERTELANDMARTIN1999FOUNDTHATAPPLIEDTARIFFSONMANUFACTURERSREDUCEDBY40PERCENTINCREASESTHEVOLUMEOFWORLDTRADEBY380BILLIONTHESEDATACLEARLYHELPINFORMPOLICYTRADEOFFSANDNEGOTIATINGPRIORITIESTHEREAREDEMONSTRABLEBENEFITSASSOCIATEDWITHAPRIORITYFOCUSONLIBERALIZATIONINGOODSFORDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESINCLUDINGNONTARIFFBARRIERSTOTRADEINSTANDARDSDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESACCOUNTTODAYFOR20PERCENTOFWORLDTOTALEXPORTSINGOODS,WITHMANUFACTURINGTOTALINGAPPROXIMATELY70PERCENTOFOVERALLEXPORTSREDUCINGDUPLICATIVEORDISCRIMINATORYTECHNICALBARRIERS,EITHERTHROUGHCHANGESINTHEBASISOFMANDATORYSTANDARDSTHEMSELVESORTHROUGHALTERATIONSINTESTINGANDCERTIFICATIONREQUIREMENTSIMPOSEDONMANUFACTURERSSHOULDFURTHERACCELERATETRADETHENEWIMPORTANCEOFEMPIRICALWORKONSTANDARDSISALSOREFLECTEDINTHEFACTTHATTHEREHASBEENARISEINTHEINCIDENCEOFTECHNICALREGULATIONSASINSTRUMENTSOFCOMMERCIALPOLICYEXAMPLESOFDISPUTESBROUGHTTOTHEWTO,AMONGOTHERS,HIGHLIGHTTHISFACTINRESPONSETOINCREASEDPRESSURESINTHETRADINGSYSTEMASCOUNTRIESEMPLOYREGULATORYBARRIERSTOPROTECTDOMESTICFIRMS,THEREHAVEBEENINCREASEDCALLSFORHARMONIZATIONOFSTANDARDSANDNEGOTIATIONOFMUTUALRECOGNITIONAGREEMENTSMRASCOVERINGPRODUCTTESTINGANDCERTIFICATIONSYSTEMSINBOTHTHESEAREAS,DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESHAVEASPECIALSTAKE,ASTHEYHAVEHADONLYLIMITEDINVOLVEMENTINSTANDARDSDEVELOPMENTACTIVITIESANDLACKMUCHOFTHEINFRASTRUCTURENECESSARYTOSUPPORTTHEMODERNTESTINGPROTOCOLSWHICHANMRAREQUIRESTHENEXTSECTIONOFTHISPAPERADDRESSESTHESETOPICSASAWAYTOUNDERSTANDTHEPOLICYCONTEXTDRIVINGDEMANDTRADE4THEMULTILATERALTRADESYSTEMSTANDARDSASAPRIORITYFORDEBATETHEINCREASEDPREMIUMONEMPIRICALDATATOINFORMPOLICYONTRADERELATEDTECHNICALBARRIERSISBASEDTOALARGEDEGREEONTHESIMPLENATUREOFTRADECONFLICTSTODAYTHEREHASBEENAMARKEDRISEINTHENUMBEROFTRADEDISPUTESOVERSTANDARDSBROUGHTTOTHEWTODURINGTHEPASTFIVEYEARSTHEMAJORITYOFTHESECENTERONTRADEINAGRICULTURALPRODUCTSANDOBLIGATIONSUNDERTHEAGREEMENTONSANITARYANDPHYTOSANITARYSTANDARDSTHEMOSTHIGHPROFILESTANDARDSCASESINRECENTYEARSHAVEBEENINAGRICULTURE,SUCHASTHEDISPUTEBETWEENTHEEUROPEANCOMMUNITYANDUNITEDSTATESOVERHORMONETREATEDBEEF5THEREISALSORISINGTRADETENSIONGENERATEDOVERTHEUSEOFGENETICALLYMODIFIEDORGANISMSGMOSINAGRICULTUREWHICHTHETRADINGSYSTEMWILLNEEDTOADDRESS8CLAIMSOFVIOLATIONOFVARIOUSPROVISIONSOFTHEAGREEMENTONTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADEHAVEALSOBEENINCREASINGSINCE1995DISPUTESOVERDOMESTICREGULATIONSAFFECTINGIMPORTSORTHEPROCESSANDPRODUCTIONMETHODSTHROUGHWHICHGOODSAREMANUFACTUREDAREBECOMINGMOREIMPORTANTASACONSEQUENCE,THEVIABILITYOFWTODISCIPLINESTOADDRESSNEWAREASWHEREDOMESTICREGULATIONAFFECTSTRADEISBEINGTESTEDTHISWILLUNDOUBTEDLYBECOMEMOREIMPORTANTAS1ECONOMICACTIVITYCONTINUESTODISPERSEAROUNDTHEWORLD,2EXPORTSOFFINISHEDGOODSBYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESTHATALREADYHAVESTATUSTOBRINGCOMPLAINTSINTHEWTOGROW,AND3COUNTRIESSUCHASCHINA,RUSSIA,ANDUKRAINEAREBROUGHTINTOTHEWTOMEMBERSHIPAMONGTHECENTRALQUESTIONSINTHISDEBATECONCERNSWHATCONSTITUTESAN“INTERNATIONAL“STANDARDANDRELATEDISSUESOFRISKTHEREISALREADYGROWINGPRESSUREINTHETRADINGSYSTEMASSOCIATEDWITHTECHNICALBARRIERSTOIMPORTSEMPLOYEDBYGOVERNMENTASOFTHEENDOFJANUARY1999,THEWTODISPUTESETTLEMENTBODYHASCONSIDEREDATOTALOF25DISPUTESTHATREFERENCEEITHERTHESPSORTBTAGREEMENTSWILSON1999AMAJORITYOFTHESECASES,WHICHINCLUDESTEPSINTHEPROCESSFROMREQUESTSFORCONSULTATIONSTHROUGHSOMECASESENDINGINPANELANDAPPELLATEBODYRULINGS,CITEDPROVISIONSINBOTHTHESPSANDTBTAGREEMENTSNINEOFTHEDISPUTESCENTEREDONFOODSAFETYREGULATIONS,FIVECASESINVOLVEDTECHNICALREGULATIONSTIEDTOCUSTOMSREQUIREMENTS,WITHTHEREMAININGCASESINAREASSUCHASQUOTAS,IMPORTBANS,ANDDISPUTESOVERENVIRONMENTALLAWSITISIMPORTANTTONOTETHATALTHOUGHTHEMAJORITYOFCOMPLAINTSBROUGHTTOTHEWTOTODATEAREFROMDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIES19CASES,THELESSDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESHAVEEXERCISEDTHEIRRIGHTSTOBRINGCASESIN6INSTANCESDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESHAVEALSOBEENRESPONDENTSIN3CASESFINALLY,THEREAREOBVIOUSMARKETACCESSIMPLICATIONSFORDEVELOPINGCOUNTRYEXPORTERSINDECISIONSMADEINWTOCASESBROUGHT5ANOVERVIEWOFALLWTODISPUTESETTLEMENTCASESMAYBEACCESSEDVIATHEWTOWEBSITEATWWWWTOORG/WTO/DISPUTE/BULLETINHTMANDTHROUGHTHEWTODOCUMENTDISTRIBUTIONFACILITYATWWWWTOORG/DDFTHEUSEUCASEONHORMONETREATEDBEEFISCATALOGEDUNDERWT/DS26G3FINGER和SG70HULERG31999。威爾遜的討論2000概述協(xié)議的發(fā)展中國(guó)家面對(duì)的具體實(shí)G7057困難關(guān)于G6228G7427貿(mào)易壁壘。參見(jiàn)“G6228G7427貿(mào)易壁壘發(fā)展中國(guó)家的挑戰(zhàn)和機(jī)會(huì)，世界銀行的聲G7138，G6228G7427貿(mào)易壁壘委G2604會(huì)，世界貿(mào)易組織，日G1881瓦，G32000年2月2G23日。在G7389益G1593G5259和植物衛(wèi)生的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的應(yīng)用。G32關(guān)于有益健康和植物衛(wèi)生的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的應(yīng)用的協(xié)議。G3G3是否認(rèn)G2499G7693G6466G3822G17805G2842G1006規(guī)G2029、給在物品的貿(mào)易G5390加的G6228G7427G12468程和G1904產(chǎn)品G5445G2721貿(mào)易格局、生產(chǎn)G2842的G14033G2159G17839G1849G7044的出口市場(chǎng)，并且G7389消費(fèi)G13785的費(fèi)用。G9994G13792，G18337要問(wèn)題依G9994存在對(duì)的答復(fù)將直接G3332G5445G2721貿(mào)易G6931策選擇和G14270G11013化G2174G2159的G6116G2163G6122G13785失敗。G1866中發(fā)展中國(guó)家G7389G980個(gè)直接立樁圈G3332。什么是G993同的G6228G7427G12468程的具體經(jīng)濟(jì)沖擊橫跨國(guó)界G3我們G7389五年與G58G55O協(xié)議的經(jīng)驗(yàn)，并且G17839行中的細(xì)節(jié)工作在G3332方G2842G1006G16860G16817例如亞太經(jīng)濟(jì)G2524作APEC的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。集中的產(chǎn)G1006于G12661G10714貿(mào)易壁壘的費(fèi)用在過(guò)去十年中加速了。G9994G13792，G11842G4462G7693G6466G1017謹(jǐn)經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的G2010析和研究的G993同的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和G980G14280評(píng)價(jià)要求的經(jīng)濟(jì)沖擊，在我們開(kāi)始與圍攏產(chǎn)品標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的G6931策辯論和方法G4410問(wèn)題G2010析概要和G6228G7427貿(mào)易壁壘作為步往G6564G1391G7044的經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的工作G7706G7562。G12544G980個(gè)部G2010G4469G7609G20562G20554對(duì)G7044的數(shù)G6466的G19668要和在G12468程和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的G2842G1006作用的G6931策G990下G7003實(shí)驗(yàn)G16789G6466。我們G16860論G6228G7427G12468程的G990G2331的發(fā)生作為G2842G1006G6931策的G1214G3132在貿(mào)易G1117G12483中部G2010在關(guān)于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的辯論中G1075G16860論發(fā)展中國(guó)家特別G1119G5785。發(fā)展中國(guó)家必G20047G6297G17139在G12538G2524必G20047的G6931G5232標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的G17873加G6116本G7393務(wù)出口市場(chǎng)。另外，我們G8892G5859發(fā)展中國(guó)家G1075G7389G2052國(guó)G1881G12661G10714G6931策G5445G2721繼續(xù)作為保護(hù)G1186G12466G1117的保護(hù)貿(mào)易主義的G19568G11873G7092G13479G7536的國(guó)G1881生產(chǎn)G2842的G17839口。本G7003的G12544G989個(gè)部G2010G6564G1391標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的G16294G14406G980個(gè)G12628要概述。我們G16860論義務(wù)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和必G20047的G6228G7427G12468程的辯G16311。他們G9448G16774G7693G6466市場(chǎng)失敗例如關(guān)于產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量、G1593G5259G13512護(hù)和G13605G13488G1969G13870的G993對(duì)G12228的信息，G8892G5859在跨G17246G17805界G990下G7003出G10628的特G8542問(wèn)題。標(biāo)準(zhǔn)G7389對(duì)G19757G5589的沖擊，并且G7389G8975G2159的市場(chǎng)的失敗，G5326議那G18336是G5506G3949的G6940G10587和G12131G2045G6949濟(jì)G1144易。G12544G3247個(gè)部G2010G17728G2533被用于G2010析標(biāo)準(zhǔn)我們G11468信G1075G16780是G5322G19283的并且被改G17839了方法論的G2220測(cè)。我們的在這個(gè)部G2010的主要G11458的是實(shí)用的，并且G1075G16780G2343G7389G6116G6940G3332G5322G1292G2052對(duì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的G2010析和G6454的G6228G7427。本G7003的G17141G10498，是G2499G14033采G2474G2081G17839經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的工作G980個(gè)實(shí)用研究方G7708具體步的G16789G7138。如最G2530的部G2010所述，這G7691在發(fā)展中國(guó)家將G2265G63361G6203行G3374G3278的G8712G5191G16855G7609，2G3G980G14280評(píng)價(jià)G1183G1849測(cè)G16809的G16789G7138、實(shí)驗(yàn)G4472G7828G4462和G11468關(guān)的標(biāo)G16772的要求。關(guān)于這些對(duì)貿(mào)易的G1582法和關(guān)系的G980G8437全面討論看見(jiàn)，全國(guó)研究會(huì)議199G24。G33標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的商業(yè)限制DEVISING方法建立可能被運(yùn)用于微數(shù)據(jù)為了解標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的角色在出口動(dòng)力學(xué)的經(jīng)濟(jì)計(jì)量學(xué)的方法。G3標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的和G7044的G2842G1006議程經(jīng)濟(jì)G2010析G1119G5589為什么是G980G4462數(shù)量的G2419因，為什么經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義在G6228G7427和G12661G10714貿(mào)易壁壘工作關(guān)于G7044的G2842G1006議程是特別G18337要的。對(duì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的G2842G1006沖擊的經(jīng)驗(yàn)數(shù)G6466和G2010析的G19668求被G20562G20554G980部G2010被G1119實(shí)關(guān)稅G19568G11873和傳統(tǒng)G19762關(guān)稅G6526G7057，例如配額G7186G14891被G2078G1955了，如G990所述。我們G5602G7691G11705G17959關(guān)于G19762關(guān)稅，G6228G7427性貿(mào)易G3573壘G5445G2721貿(mào)易G19762G5132G11705G17959G7368G3822關(guān)于關(guān)稅G6122G15929G17160G5445G2721貿(mào)易并且G17839G980步G1955G4581的G9097義對(duì)THESEG83RG82TEG70TIG89E的G6526G7057的G17902G11705貿(mào)易G6931策辯論和G6931策制G4462。例如，估計(jì)G1955G4581G11013G230G8關(guān)稅和在G1904G1006的出口G15929G17160生產(chǎn)G7G250G1171在真G8503的全球性G6922G1849HERTEL的年G990G2331、G4445G5478生、G41RANG70G82IS和馬丁1999。G13792且，G7693G6466G2524G10714的實(shí)驗(yàn)G16789G6466和數(shù)G6466，G980個(gè)對(duì)G19428G7138，是G2524G10714G3332G11842信在G1955G4581的G980個(gè)關(guān)G19202G9978G9869對(duì)在貿(mào)易G16860G2040G980個(gè)G7044的G3290的工G1006關(guān)稅將G7509G3835G7389益于全球性G12131G2045。例如，G3HERTEL和馬丁1999發(fā)G10628在G230G8G1955G4581的制G17908G2842的應(yīng)用的關(guān)稅增加世界貿(mào)易的G4493量G7G22G270G1171。這些數(shù)G6466G7138G7186G3332G5122助G17902G11705G6931策G1144易和G16860G2040的優(yōu)G1820G7447。G7389G2499G12046G14551的G3921G3800與在G14270G11013化的G980個(gè)優(yōu)G1820G7447G9978G9869G11468關(guān)在發(fā)展中國(guó)家的物品G3G16G16G3G2265G6336G19762關(guān)稅貿(mào)易壁壘在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的。發(fā)展中國(guó)家G1182G3837G2356世界G5647出口的20G8在物品的，與制G17908G1006G5647計(jì)G3835G13434整體出口的G260G8。G1955G4581G18337復(fù)G6122G5058別對(duì)G5465的G6228G7427性貿(mào)易G3573壘，G17902過(guò)在必G20047的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)G990的依G6466的G2476化G6122G17902過(guò)在測(cè)G16809和給制G17908G2842G5390加的G16789G7138要求的改G2476應(yīng)該G17839G980步加速貿(mào)易。經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的工作的G7044的G18337要性在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的在G1119實(shí)G1075被反射G7389在G6228G7427G12468程的發(fā)生的G990G2331作為G2842G1006G6931策的G1214G3132。G3給G58G55O帶來(lái)的G1117G6203的例子，除了別的以外，G12373出這個(gè)G1119實(shí)。以G3250應(yīng)在G2842G1006系統(tǒng)的增加的壓G2159作為國(guó)家使用G12661G10714G19568G11873保護(hù)國(guó)G1881企G1006，G7389增加的呼叫請(qǐng)求標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的互G11468G6227認(rèn)協(xié)議MRAS的和諧和G1144涉G2265G6336產(chǎn)品測(cè)G16809和G16789書(shū)制的。G3在這兩個(gè)G2318G3507，發(fā)展中國(guó)家G7389特別G2045益，因?yàn)樗麄冊(cè)跇?biāo)準(zhǔn)發(fā)展G8975動(dòng)G7389僅G7389限的G1183G1849并且缺乏必要G16780G3822的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)G7057支持MRA要求的G10628代測(cè)G16809協(xié)議。本G7003的下部G2010G9448G16774這些題G11458作為方式了G16311G20562G20554對(duì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義的G2010析的G6931策G990下G7003G19668求和G6454。G34多邊商業(yè)系統(tǒng)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)作為辯論的一種優(yōu)先權(quán)在通知由于TRADERELATED技術(shù)性貿(mào)易堡壘的政策經(jīng)驗(yàn)數(shù)據(jù)增加保險(xiǎn)費(fèi)根據(jù)商業(yè)沖突的簡(jiǎn)單的本質(zhì)到大規(guī)模范圍。G3G7389在貿(mào)易G1117G12483的數(shù)量的G7138G7186G990G2331優(yōu)于給G58G55O帶來(lái)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)在過(guò)去五年期間。G3這些的G3822數(shù)在G1904產(chǎn)品的貿(mào)易和義務(wù)圍繞G7693G6466關(guān)于G7389益G1593G5259和植物衛(wèi)生的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的協(xié)議。G3G3822數(shù)高姿G5589標(biāo)準(zhǔn)G1119例近年來(lái)在G1904G1006，例如在歐洲社G2318和美國(guó)G1055間的G1117G6203優(yōu)于激素被對(duì)G5465的牛肉。G3G24G7389G1075G990G2331的貿(mào)易摩擦引起在使用基因G990修改過(guò)的G7389機(jī)體GMOS在G2842G1006系統(tǒng)將G19668要G9448G16774侵害G27CLAIG80S協(xié)議各種各G7691的G1391應(yīng)關(guān)于G6228G7427貿(mào)易壁壘的G14270199G24年以來(lái)G1075增加的G1904G1006。G1117G6203優(yōu)于物品是制作的國(guó)G1881G12468程G5445G2721G17839口G6122過(guò)程的和生產(chǎn)方法G2476得G7368加G18337要。G13479G7536，G3G58G55OG4410G12197的生G8975G14033G2159G9448G16774國(guó)G1881G12468程G5445G2721貿(mào)易被測(cè)G16809的G7044的G2318G3507的。G3這將G11013在G58G55O中已經(jīng)帶來(lái)的狀G5589怨G16340增G19283，并且G22國(guó)家例如中國(guó)、俄國(guó)和G1056克蘭被帶領(lǐng)G17839G1849G58G55O會(huì)G2604資格的發(fā)展中國(guó)家G7092疑G3332G6116為制G6116品G7368加G18337要的，當(dāng)1經(jīng)濟(jì)G8975動(dòng)繼續(xù)G2010散G10627球，2出口。G3在主要問(wèn)題G1055中在這G8437辯論中G7389關(guān)什么構(gòu)G6116風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的“國(guó)際”標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和G11468關(guān)問(wèn)題。已經(jīng)G7389在G2842G1006系統(tǒng)的生G19283壓G2159與G6228G7427性貿(mào)易G3573壘G11468關(guān)對(duì)G6931G5232使用的G17839口。G3G142701999年1月，G3G58G55OG1117G6203G16311決身體考慮了G5647共2G24G1117G6203那參考SPSG6122G55BG55協(xié)議威爾遜1999。G3G3835G3822數(shù)這些G7708G1226，在G1186要求的過(guò)程G2265G6336咨詢G17902過(guò)在盤(pán)G2318和受G10714G990訴的身體G2040決的G7389些G7708G1226G13479尾，援引在SPS和G55BG55協(xié)議的G1391應(yīng)。G3九G1117G6203在食品G4445全性G12468程圍繞，五個(gè)G7708G1226G1183G1849了G6228G7427G12468程被栓對(duì)海關(guān)規(guī)G4462，與剩余的G7708G1226在G2318G3507例如配額、G12117G8502G17839口和G1117G6203優(yōu)于G10627G3671法。G3G8892G5859G2052是G18337要的，雖G9994給G58G55O帶來(lái)的G3822數(shù)怨G16340迄G1182是G1186發(fā)G17810國(guó)家19個(gè)G7708G1226，欠發(fā)G17810的國(guó)家行使了他們的G7447G2045帶來(lái)在G25個(gè)G1119例的G7708G1226。G3發(fā)G17810國(guó)家G1075是G22個(gè)G7708G1226的應(yīng)答G13785。G3終于，G7389發(fā)展中國(guó)家出口G2842的G7138G7186的市場(chǎng)準(zhǔn)G1849G9097義在G58G55OG1119例G1582出的決G4462帶來(lái)了G24所G7389G58G55O概要盒G1075G16780訪問(wèn)列在WWWWTG82G82RG/WTG82/DISG83UTE/BULLETINHTG80的G58G55OG13605站的G1117G6203G16311決。G3并且G17902過(guò)在WWWWTG82G82RG/DDF的G58G55OG7003G1226銷(xiāo)售條G1226。G3美國(guó)G16歐盟在激素被對(duì)G5465的牛肉裝G1849編G11458在G58G55/DS2G25G3G3G58G55/DSG23G27G1055下。G35反應(yīng)對(duì)被開(kāi)發(fā)的成員，例如美國(guó)。二個(gè)案件說(shuō)明這個(gè)事實(shí)和下面簡(jiǎn)單地被回顧。G3美國(guó)請(qǐng)求與日本的咨詢?cè)?99G26年G23月G26日，關(guān)于日本G5390加的要求為八G1904產(chǎn)品每種測(cè)G16809和G16789實(shí)G7828疫治療的G6940G2159蘋(píng)G7536、櫻桃、桃子G2265G6336油桃，核桃、杏子、梨、李子和柑橘。G3日本G12468程G12117G8502這些產(chǎn)品的G17839口美國(guó)，G7693G6466