1、Chapter 21. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It contains three parts: articulatory phonetics (the study of the production of speech sounds), acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics.2. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of lgs

2、. 3. Speech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.4. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols con

3、sist of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.5. consonants are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction”6. vowels are produced without such “st

4、ricture” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose”.7. manner of articulation are ways in which articulation can be accomplished. It consists of 8 categories: stop, fricative, approximant, lateral, nasal, trill, tap (flap), and affricate. (1) Stop/plosive: A speech

5、 sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. p, b, t, d, k, g (2) Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. f, v, s, z, h(3) Approximant: An articulation in which one articulato

6、r is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. w, r, j(4) Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or bo

7、th sides of the blockage. l 8. place of articulation : refers to the point where a consonant is made. It has 11 categories: (1) Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips. p, b, m, w,(2) Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. f, v(3) Den

8、tal: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth. (4) Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge. t, d, n, s, z, r, l (5) Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar

9、ridge. (6) Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.(7) Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard pa

10、late. j(8) Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. k, g, (9) Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.(10) Pharyngeal: A speech sou

11、nd which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.(11) Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other. h9. Cardinal Vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame o

12、f reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. 10. Pure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality. Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves tw

13、o vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other. A triphthong is “a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption” 11. Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.12. Received Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard Eng

14、lish pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC net

15、work.13. coarticulation: when simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverat

16、ive coarticulation, as is the case of map.14. Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.15. Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.16. The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The

17、 use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, includin

18、g even the minutest shades of pronunciation.17. phonetics vs. phonology:Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and

19、 sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a languag

20、e systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explai

21、n the variations that occur.18. Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. (tin/din)19. Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which

22、 also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.20. Phoneme is a unit o

23、f explicit sound contrast”. Allophones: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. (/l/-clear l/ dark l)21. Assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sou

24、nd. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.22. Devoicing is a process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voic

25、ed consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word. (not occurring with stops and vowels)23. The changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.24. Distinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group. Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or w