1、1. 語(yǔ)言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness雙層結(jié)構(gòu)duality 既由聲音和意義結(jié)構(gòu)多產(chǎn)性productivity移位性displacement:我們能用語(yǔ)言可以表達(dá)許多不在場(chǎng)的東西文化傳播性cultural transmission2。語(yǔ)言的功能：傳達(dá)信息功能informative人濟(jì)功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娛樂(lè)功能recreatinal元語(yǔ)言功能metalingual語(yǔ)言學(xué) linguistics：包括六個(gè)分支語(yǔ)音學(xué)Phonetics音位學(xué)phonology形態(tài)學(xué)Morphology句法學(xué)s

2、yntax語(yǔ)義學(xué)semantics語(yǔ)用學(xué)pragmatics現(xiàn)代結(jié)構(gòu)主義語(yǔ)言學(xué)創(chuàng)始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出語(yǔ)言學(xué)中最重要的概念對(duì)之一：語(yǔ)言與言語(yǔ)language and parole ，語(yǔ)言之語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)的整體，言語(yǔ)則只待某個(gè)個(gè)體在實(shí)際語(yǔ)言使用環(huán)境中說(shuō)出的具體話語(yǔ)語(yǔ)法創(chuàng)始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用competence and performanceWhich of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one ofthe unique properties

3、of language:we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languagewe can use both shu and tree to describe the same thing.we can u se language to refer to something not presentwe can produce sentences that have never been heard before.is the most important function of language?interpersonalpha

4、ticinformativefunction of the sentence A nice day, isnt it ?is _a informativephaticdirectiveperformativedistinction between competence and performance is proposed by _a saussurehallidaychomskythe prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?saussurechomskyhallidayd ano

5、mymous第二節(jié) 語(yǔ)音學(xué)發(fā)音器官由聲帶the vocal cords 和三個(gè)回聲腔組成輔音 consonant ： there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.輔音的發(fā)音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞輔音partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音affricates等輔音清濁特征voicing輔音的送氣特征aspiration元音vowel分類標(biāo)準(zhǔn)舌翹位置，舌高和嘴唇的形狀雙元音 diphth

6、ongs, 有元音過(guò)渡vowel glidesArticulatory phonetics mainly studies _.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechthe perception of soundsthe combination of soundsthe production of soundsThe distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in _the place of articulationobstruction f airstreamthe

7、position of the tonguethe shape of the lipsWhat is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voiceless b. spreadWhat phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?voicingaspirationd. nasalityof the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingapproximationaspir

8、ationphonological features of the consonant k are _voiced stopvoiceless stopvoiced fricativevoiceless fricativeis divverent from k in _the manner of articulationthe shape of the lipsthe vibration of the vocal cordspalce of articualtionof the vocal cords results in _a. aspirationc. obstructionvoicing

9、第三節(jié) 音位學(xué) phonology音位學(xué)與語(yǔ)音學(xué)的區(qū)別：語(yǔ)音學(xué)著重于語(yǔ)音的自然屬性，主要關(guān)注所有語(yǔ)言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音；音位學(xué)則強(qiáng)調(diào)語(yǔ)音的社會(huì)功能，其對(duì)象是某一種語(yǔ)言中可以用來(lái)組合成詞句的那些語(yǔ)音。音位 phoneme：最小語(yǔ)音單位音位變體allophones: 讀音差別對(duì)比性分布：如果兩個(gè)音段出現(xiàn)在同一個(gè)語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中，而且產(chǎn)生了兩個(gè)不同的單詞，互補(bǔ)性分布；如果兩個(gè)基本相似的音段絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在相同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境中，那么它們之間就是互補(bǔ)性分布的關(guān)系，如送氣p 絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在s 之后，不送氣的p 絕不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在詞首音節(jié) syllable , 分為節(jié)首 onset , 節(jié)峰 peak, 節(jié)尾 coda輔音群

10、 : 一般作為音節(jié)節(jié)首的輔音群不能超過(guò)三個(gè)福音，節(jié)尾不能超過(guò)4 個(gè)最小語(yǔ)音對(duì)minimal pairsIntroductionWhat is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is Linguistics（ 語(yǔ)言學(xué) ）Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Basic Distinctions（ 區(qū)分 ） in LinguisticsSpeech and WritingOne general p

11、rinciple（ 原則 ） of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech overwriting. Writing gives language new scope（ 范疇 ） and uses that speech does not have.Descriptive（ 描述性 ） or Prescriptive（ 說(shuō)明性 ）A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; itis prescriptive if it tries

12、to lay down rules for correct behavior.Synchronic（ 共時(shí) ） and Diachronic（ 歷時(shí) ） StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Langue（ 語(yǔ)言 ） and Parole（ 言語(yǔ) ）This is a distinction made by

13、the Swiss linguist Saussure （索緒爾）early lastcentury. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized（實(shí)際的 ） language, orrealization of langue.Competence（ 能力 ）and Performance（ 行為 ）Competence is the ideal language users

14、knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances（發(fā)聲 ）.4. The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué) ） is thebranch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and pro

15、vides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology（ 音韻學(xué) ） is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology（ 詞法 ） is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. Syntax（ 句法 ） is the branch of linguistics which studies the

16、 rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics（ 語(yǔ)義學(xué) ） is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics（ 應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)） is the study of the teaching of foreign and secondlanguages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and

17、 society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics（ 歷史語(yǔ)言學(xué)） is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics（ 人 文 語(yǔ) 言 學(xué) ） uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to

18、 the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics（ 神 經(jīng) 語(yǔ) 言 學(xué) ） studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics（ 數(shù)學(xué)語(yǔ)言學(xué)） studies the mathematical features of language,often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational lingu

19、istics（ 計(jì)算語(yǔ)言學(xué)） is an approach to linguistics in whichmathematical techniques and concepts are applied, often with the aid of a computer. II. Phonetics（ 語(yǔ)音學(xué)）scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least threebranches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics（ 發(fā)

20、音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）we may examine the way in which a speech soundis produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate（ 協(xié) 調(diào)） in the process.Auditory phonetics （聽覺語(yǔ)音學(xué)）we may look into the impression a speaker makeson the hearer as mediated（ 調(diào)節(jié)） by the ear, the auditory nerve（ 神經(jīng)） and the

21、brain.Acoustic phonetics （ 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）we study the physical properties of speech sounds,as transmitted （傳送）between mouth and ear.The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of theair-stream,（ 氣流發(fā)生器官）the producer of voice （聲音發(fā)生器官）and the resonatingcavities. （

22、聲音共振器官）Consonants（ 輔音）Places of articulation（ 發(fā)音部位）: bilabial,（ 雙唇） Labiodentals, （唇齒）dental,（齒） alveolar, （齒齦）retroflex, （卷舌）palate-alveolar, （上齒齦）palatal,（上顎）velar, （軟腭）uvular, （小舌）glottal（ 聲門）Manners of articulation: plosive,nasal, （鼻音）trill, （顫音）lateral,Manners of articulation: plosive,（邊音）frica

23、tive, （摩擦）approximant, （近似音）affricate （破擦）Vowels （ 元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising （high, mid, low）, the position of the highest part of the tongue（front, central, back）, and the degree of lip rounding（rounded, unrounded）Phonology （音韻學(xué)）phonemes（ 音素） ： a distinctive（ 有區(qū)別

24、的）sound in a language.Allophones（ 音位變體）： The nondistinctive sounds are membersof the same phoneme.Minimal pairs（ 最小對(duì)立體）： word forms which differ from each other only by onesound.Free variation （ 自由變異）： If two sounds occurring in the same environment（環(huán)境 ） , they does not produce a different word form

25、, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.Complementary distribution（ 補(bǔ)充分類）： Not all the speech sounds occur in the sameenvironment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment.phonology（ 超音段音位）： the study of phonological properties（性質(zhì)） of units lager than the segment-phoneme.

26、They are syllable（音節(jié)） ， stress,（重音）word stress, sentence stress. pitch（音調(diào)）and intonation （語(yǔ)調(diào)）.Morphology （詞法）inflection（ 構(gòu)形法）： the grammatical relationships through the addition ofinflectional affixes.（ 屈折詞綴）Word-formation（ 構(gòu)詞） ： the processes（ 過(guò)程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.

27、 （表明詞法關(guān)系）They are compound（ 合成） and derivation （ 派生） .Morpheme（ 詞素） ： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.Allomorph（ 同質(zhì)異象變體）： some morphemes have considerable variation, forinstance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.Types of morphemes: They are roots,（ 詞根） aff

28、ix （詞綴）and stem （詞干）.Lexicon（ 語(yǔ)言詞匯）： in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.Closed-class words（ 封閉性）and open-class words（ 開放性） ： the former whosemembership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle（實(shí)際上） indefinite or unlimited.Word class（ 詞性） ： It displays

29、 a wider range of more precisely defined classes.Lexeme（ 詞位） ： the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.Idiom（ 習(xí)語(yǔ)，成語(yǔ)）： Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true fora sequence of words（ 詞序） which is semantically （ 語(yǔ)義上）and of

30、ten syntactically（ 句法上） restricted. （限制）Collocation（ 搭配） ： the habitual（ 習(xí)慣的）co-occurrences （同時(shí)出現(xiàn)）ofindividual lexical items.V. Syntax （ 句法）Positional relation or word order（詞序） ： the sequential（ 順序） arrangement ofwords in a language.Construction or constituent （句子結(jié)構(gòu)）： the overall process of interna

31、l （內(nèi)部） organization of a grammatical unit .Syntactic function（ 句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form andother parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functionsare expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,（ 修 飾 語(yǔ)） complements （補(bǔ)語(yǔ)）, etc.Categ

32、ory（ 范疇） ： It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, . noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.Phrase: a single element of structure containingmore than one word, and lacking the subject-pre

33、dicate structure typical of clause.Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is includedin a larger sentence.Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.SemanticsConceptualism or mentalism （ 概念主義）： Following F. DeSaussure（ 索學(xué)爾）s signtheory,

34、 the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier（所指） and signified （被指） , ., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的）associative bond. （相關(guān)聯(lián)系）Mechanism（ 機(jī)械主義）： Some linguists, Bloomfield,（ 布魯費(fèi)爾德）for example,turned to science to counter （反） -act the precious theories and this l

35、eads to what call the mechanistic approach （方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to dowith the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力現(xiàn)象）Contextualism （語(yǔ)境主義）： It is based on the presumption（ 假定） that one can derivemeaning from or reduce it to observable context.Behaviorism （ 行為主義）： Behavioris

36、ts attempt to define （ 定義） the meaning of alanguage form as the situation（ 情景） in which the speaker utters （說(shuō)話）it andthe response （反應(yīng)）it calls forth in the hearer.functionalism （ 功能主義）： functionalists as represented （ 代表） by the Pragueschool （布拉格學(xué)派）linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach

37、 theproblem from an entirely new orientation （方法）. They argue （爭(zhēng)辯）that meaningcould only be interpreted （解釋）from its use or function in social life.Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between thelinguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of

38、 experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy（同義詞）, antonym（ 反義詞） ,hyponymy（ 下層次）Polysemy（ 一詞多義）and Homonymy （ 同音異義詞）analysis which definesSemantic analysis: It includes 1） componentialthe meaning of a le

39、xical element in terms of semantic components.（analysis which defines意義成分)2)predication （ 表述） 意義成分)2)sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3） relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because theyshow relations between two and per

40、haps more terms.Language variation （ 語(yǔ)言變化）Lexical change（ 詞匯的變化）： changes in lexis.Invention: （ 新造詞）new entities.Compounding 合成詞）Newwords are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.Blending: （ 混合詞） ： It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final partof the second root, or by joining the initial