1、Chapt er I Intr o ductio n De s cri b i ng and Expla ini ng L2 Acqui s ition1. lWha t is s ec on d 1 an g u ag e ac q uisit ion?Second language refers to any language t h at i s learned subsequent t o the mother tongue.W h at are the g oa ls of s e cond l an guage?The goals of SLA are to de s cribe

2、how L2 a cquisi tion proceeds and t o e xplain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than ot hers .1. 3Twocase st u d i es of L 21 earne rs1 .3.1 A c a se stu dy of a n adu lt learnerA case s tud y of two chi ld learnersWhat do these case studies show us?They raise a number of i

3、mportant methodo1ogical issues re1ating t o how L2 acquisiti on sh ould be studiedThe y ra ise issues rela ti ng to the d escri ptio n o f learner languageThey point out some of the problems researchers experience in trying to e xp1ain L2 acquisi tion.1.4Method ological i ssuesWha t i s that needs t

4、 o be described?What it means to say that a learner has acquired a feature oft hetarget language?Whether 1e arne rs h ave acqui red a particular feature?How t o measure whether a c quisi t ion has taken place? (Learners ove ru se of li nguist i c forms.)I ss u es in t he d escr ipt io n of lea r ner

5、langua g eLe a rners make e r r o rso f d i ffer e nt ki n ds.Le arners acqui r ed al ar g e number of formulaic chunks,whichwill i nflue nc e t he i rperformanc e in commun ica t ion andthefl uencyof the i r unplanned speech.Wh ether l e ar n ers acqui r e the l anguage sy stematic a ll y ?Is su e

6、s in the expla n ation of L 2 acquisiti o nIte m learning： formu laic chunksS yst e m l e arning: rulesInt ernal (ment alist) account:External account：Chapter2 the Nature of Learner Language2 .1 Err or s a nd e r ror an aly s isIden tifying er rors2. 1 . 1 .1 Comp are the learn ers l a nguage with t

7、 he n o rmal on es .2. 1.1.2 Dis tinguis h erro rs and mistake s.De fin iti on : Er ror s re fl ect g ap s in a lea rn ers kn owledgeMist akes r efle ct occasi onal la pses in per formance.Metho ds:a . Check the consi stency of l earne rs p er forman ce.b. Ask them t o corre ct th eir own ut teran c

8、e.Er rors and mi stake s:Des cribing erro rsM e thods：e rro r ty p M e thods：b. e rro r maker o r iented:Mean i ng: C lassi fyi ng err or s in th ese ways can h e Ip us to diag n ose learners learning problems at any one stag e of th ei r d e vel o pme nt and, also to plot h ow chan ges i n er r or

9、pat terns occu r over ti me.Exp la ining err o rsErrors are systematic, predictable, and some of them a re un i vers a l: (Learners h as constru c te d s ome kind of rule”， a lbe i t a r u le differ e nt fr om t hat of th e target lang uage )Eg: o missi on : leave out the a rticle “the”，leave o u t

10、the -s in plu r a l nou nsOverg e nerali z ati o n error: eat e d-at eTransfer er r o r s ref l ect lea r ners at tempt to make use of their L 1 knowled ge.21.4 Er ror eva luationTy p es of e r ro rs： Global e rr or s: v i ol a te t he w h ole structur e of t he sentenceL oca l e rrors : affe ct onl

11、y a s ing le c onstitu en t i n t he s entence22Developmental patterns2. 2.1 The earl y st age of L 2 a cqui s itionS i l ent pe rio d : ch ild re n mak e no a t tempt t o say anythi ng to b egin wit h.This peri od makes a prepar ation for subsequent pro duc t ion.Trials and er rors: Mula ic chunks:

12、 they pr ovide learne rs with the means o f pe rforming useful lan gua ge funct i ons such as greetin gs and requ ests.Eg:“Ho w do you do ?”My name i s_”Pro positi o nal s imp l i ficat i on: leave words outEg: Me n o bl u e2.2.2 The order ofac quisi tionAccurac yorder : t here i sa definite accurac

13、yo rd er an d that thi s r emainsmore or lessth e sa me irrespe ctive ofthe learne r smot he r t o n g ues, age, an d w het h er o r n ot they h av e receive f orma 1 language instruction .2.2. 3 Sequence of acqui s iti o na. The ac quisition of a par t icu 1a r g r a mmatical struct u re, therefore

14、, must be s een as a pro cess i nvolv i ng t r ans it io nal c o nstructio n s.A c quis it ion follows a U shaped cou rs e of dev elopme n t.T he p rocess in whic h 1 ea r ner s r e o r ga n ize their exi sti n g know 1ed ge i n o rder to accommodate new know1 edge is called restructuring.So me Impl

15、icati onsL 2 is systemat ic a nd universal, reflec ting ways in which inte r na 1 cogni ti ve mech ani sms contro1 acquisition, i rres pective of the persona1 background of learners or the settings in which they learn.Some 1 in gu isti c f eature s are in her ent ly easier to learn than others.2.3Va

16、riability in learner languageVari abi lity is a1 so systematic, t hat is, learners u se their 1in gui stic s our ce s in predictable w ays .Learners vary in their use of the second language according to1inguistic context (George playing footbal1/ .all the time)situational context.(kids/daughter)& ps

17、y ch olingu is tic co n text (prep a r e d / un p repared)c. f o rm-function m a p p ingd . free v a ri a ti o n：e. f os s il i zati on :石化成因任何現(xiàn)象的出現(xiàn)都不是偶然的,是可以追溯出它的原因的，二語習(xí)得過程中出現(xiàn)的中介語石 化現(xiàn)象也是有著根本性的原因的Selinker從中介語理論的分析角度將石化現(xiàn)象形成 的原因歸納為五個(gè)過程:母語遷移、培訓(xùn)轉(zhuǎn)移、二語學(xué)習(xí)策略、二語交際策略和目的語過度 概括。Sei inker對石化的解釋更多的是石化的主要表現(xiàn)，而沒有找出石

18、化的根本原因。后 來,Ellis又對Selinke 和Lam e ndella的研究作了如下總結(jié)：（1）內(nèi)因:年齡因素:即當(dāng)學(xué)習(xí)者達(dá) 到一定的關(guān)鍵期，他們的大腦失去了可塑性,因而就無法掌握某些語言特征;缺乏與目的語社 會文化融合的欲望:由于各種不同的社會和心理因素,學(xué)習(xí)者對接受目的語文化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)不做出努 力。（2 ）外因:交際壓力:持續(xù)不斷的交流壓力要求使用目的語超出了學(xué)習(xí)者的語言能力導(dǎo)致 石化的發(fā)生。缺乏學(xué)習(xí)機(jī)會:學(xué)習(xí)者缺乏獲得輸入和使用第二語言的機(jī)會。反饋性質(zhì)：對學(xué) 生第二語言使用的影響：肯定的認(rèn)知回饋（表示“我明白你的話”）導(dǎo)致石化的發(fā)生；否定 的回饋（表示“我聽不懂你的話”）有助于消除石化

19、。應(yīng)對策略（一）增加二語的輸入量大多數(shù)二語的初學(xué)者如果得不到足夠的二語的陳述性知識,就會出現(xiàn)語言的穩(wěn)定期。所以外 語教學(xué)中,當(dāng)學(xué)習(xí)者已經(jīng)達(dá)到某種精通程度后,應(yīng)該增加他的二語輸入量。二語的輸入既要重 視數(shù)量又要重視質(zhì)量。課堂教學(xué)材料要多樣化,當(dāng)前的許多教材應(yīng)該編輯一系列激發(fā)二語學(xué) 習(xí)動機(jī)的語境和篇章,如報(bào)刊文章、海報(bào)、廣告等。學(xué)生應(yīng)盡可能多利用課外聽、說、讀寫 資源和任何可以增加二語輸入量的機(jī)會。第二語言的輸入應(yīng)該包括音位知識、語法和詞匯。 第二語言知識的積累還應(yīng)該包括相關(guān)的文化知識輸入。對語言遷移的研究表明學(xué)習(xí)者對語言 的標(biāo)志性特征比較敏感,所以某種語言的一般特征而不是可區(qū)別性特征更容易導(dǎo)致石

20、化。這 樣,為了避免石化，語言學(xué)習(xí)者需要比較母語和目的語的文化,找出存在于兩種語言之間結(jié)構(gòu) 表達(dá)上的異同來減少母語的遷移。（二）融合聽、說、讀、寫四種技能促進(jìn)自動化和認(rèn)知以認(rèn)知理論對二語學(xué)習(xí)所做的分析為基礎(chǔ),針對我國大多數(shù)英語學(xué)習(xí)者產(chǎn)生石化的主要原因, 并借鑒Brown的建議，針對中級學(xué)習(xí)者，我們可以適當(dāng)采取綜合聽、說、讀、寫四種技巧的 教學(xué)方法:第一種是以內(nèi)容為中心的教學(xué)（conte n t-b as e d teach ing）,這種教學(xué)以教授 某專業(yè)的內(nèi)容為主,把英語作為學(xué)習(xí)該專業(yè)的交流手段,學(xué)生要想學(xué)好專業(yè)課，必須使自己的 英語在聽、說、讀、寫等方面都達(dá)到一定的水平才能取得成功;第二種

21、是以主題為中心的教學(xué)(theme basedt each i ng),這種教學(xué)方法圍繞某一能夠激發(fā)學(xué)生興趣的主題或話題組織教學(xué)。例如英語精 讀課就可以圍繞公共衛(wèi)生、環(huán)境意識、世界經(jīng)濟(jì)等課題展開教學(xué)，目前在我國這種方法已被 普遍采用,但由于教師的準(zhǔn)備不夠,更重要的是由于教材的編制不能滿足或跟上實(shí)際需要 ,所 以沒能達(dá)到這種方法的最佳效果；第三種是以任務(wù)為中心的教學(xué)(taskb as e d tea ch ing),這種方法更注重語言在實(shí)際運(yùn)用中功能的實(shí)現(xiàn)，在課堂上語言知識的輸入以各種真實(shí) 的資料為主，如面試、采訪、公告、菜單等,要求學(xué)習(xí)者使用所學(xué)的英語知識在實(shí)際生活中 完成某一具體任務(wù),這樣就突

22、出了語言的功能性特點(diǎn)。對于高級英語學(xué)習(xí)者來說,提供真實(shí)的 語境是當(dāng)務(wù)之急，學(xué)習(xí)者可以通過大量觀看原版英文電影、英語電視節(jié)目以及用英語寫影評、 日記等方式來彌補(bǔ)缺少真實(shí)語境的不足,另外盡可能多地和外教或本族語是英語的外國人交 流并充分利用互聯(lián)網(wǎng)最大限度地使自己接觸自然真實(shí)的英語語境。Chapter 3 Interlanguage3. 1 B ehavio r ist Learning The oryLan gu ag e l e ar n ing theo r y i s like any o t h er k i nd o f learning in th a t it involves h

23、a bit formation.Bu t it is not adequat e to ad e quatel y acco un t for L 2 a c quisit ion, s ince learn e rs fr e q ue ntly do not p rod uc e output th a t simpl y r ep r odu c e in put.Habit -s timu lu s- r esp ons e c onn ect ion3 .2 A mentali s t t heory i n langua ge le a rningMa in ideasof thi

24、stheory1. Only h uma nbeingsare c apableof lear ning la ng ua ge.2 The humanmind isequippe d wi tha faculty fo r l earn inglanguageTLa nguage Ac q uisi t ion Device（語言習(xí)得機(jī)制）.3. This faculty is th e primary dete r mi n ant of LA.4. Input i s nee ded, but o nl y to trigger t he op er at i on of the lan

25、guage acqu isition devi ce .3.3 Wha t is “ i n te rlan g u a g eIt refers to the s y s tem ati c kn owled ge of an L 2 that is in de pe n dent of b o t h th e ta r get and the l earners L1. A learn e rs inter l angu age is a unique lin gui stic sys tem.The premises of interlanguage1. Interlanguage i

26、s viewed as a mental gramma r .（心理語法）2. The le a rmers grammar is perme a ble.（滲透性）3. The l earners gr ammar is tr ansi ti onal .（遷移）4. The sy st e ms le a r ner s construct cont a in variable r ule s .多變5. Learners employ various learning s trategi es to develop t heir i nterl ang u a ge .（學(xué)習(xí)策略）6.

27、The le a rners gramm a r is lik e ly to fo s sili ze .（石化）1 Me n t al Gramma rThe learn e r c onstru c ts a s y s t em of ab s tra c t l inguistic rul es w h ich under lies com p rehe n si o n and production of th e L2 . Thi s syst em of rul es is viewed as a mental grammarand i s referred to as an

28、interla ngu age.2 PermeableThe grammar i s open to infl uence from the outside （i.e. through theinput）. It is also influenced from the inside. （i.e.omission，ov er gener al i s ation） computa t io nal mode l o f L2 ac q ui s ition3 TransitionalLearnerschange their grammar from one t ime to an other b

29、 y addingru le s,dele ting rul e s, and re co n s t ruct i ng the whole system.This results in an interlanguage continuum（連續(xù)體）eg. Paint - pai nt, pai nt ing - pa i nt, p a i nting,pain t ed4 . Varia b leSo m e rese a rc h er s ha v e c la im ed t ha t th e s ys te m s learners const ruct contain var

30、iable rules . That is， the learners are l i ke l y to have com p eti n g rules at any one st a g e of development.Ot h er rese a rche r s argue that int er langu age systems are h omogener o us an d tha t v a riability reflec tsthemistakes le ar ners ma ke when t hey try t o us e th ei r knowledge t

31、 o commu nicate .5.lea rn ing st ra tegie sLearners employ various learning strategies to develop their interlangu ag es The d iffere nt kinds of e rro rs learner s produce refle ct d if ferent learnin f s trategies6 . Fo s sili z a t ionSe linker sug g e s ted t hat only abou t 5% of le a r n e rs

32、g o o n to develop the same men tal grammar as native sp eakers.3 .4 Computatio na l mode l of L2 acquisitioninputintakeL 2knowledgeoutputIBlack box of the learners mind=int e rlangu a ge constructedOther way s t o e 1 a b orat e this ba sic mo d elSoc i al cont ext added t o exp 1 ain how t he n a

33、tur e of t he i np ut varies from one se tt in g t o anot herL2 knowledge broken up into two or more components to re f lect the d i f f er e nt kinds of kn o w 1 ed g e learn e r s const r u c ts.e. g. e x pl i cit kno w le dg e about lan gu age & i mplicit kn owledge o f la n gu a ge(P35)An ar row

34、 c an be dr awn f rom outp ut to input.C h apter 4 Soci al as p ec t s of i nt e rla n g u age4.1 I nte rlan gu ag e as a st y l i Stic continuum (風(fēng)格連續(xù)體)Stylistic continuum：a. carefu l sty1 e 謹(jǐn)慎體b. vernac ular style 通俗體Problem s : a. L earners are n ot a 1 wa y s most ac c u r at e in t heir care fu

35、l sty1 e a nd lea st ca refu1 i n their vernacular style .b. the ro1e of soci al fa ct ors re mains unclear .Accommo dationthe ory:Ho w so cial g roups i nflue nce t he cours es of L2 ac quisition .(Con ver gence， di vergenc e)4. 2 The acquisition model of L2 acquisi4. 2 The acquisition model of L2

36、acquisition (儒化模式)Soc i al d is ta nee, p syc ho 1 ogica 1 dista n ce, pidgini z a t i o n4.3 S oci al id e ntity and investmen t in L2 learningCultural capital is needed to i nv est i n language learning.Chap te r 5 Discourse Aspec ts of Inte rlanguage5.1Acquiring d i sco ur se ru1 es Dis c ourse r

37、 ules ref er to the rules or r e gulariti e s in the ways in which nati v e s peake r s hold c onver sa ti o ns.5.2Th e r o le of in put and in t e r acti o n i n L 2 acq u isitio ninput hypothesisinteiactio 口 hypothesisscaffoldingzone of proximaJ dev elopm ent1 St ephen Kra s hens inp u t hyp othe

38、s i sL2 a cqu i s i tiontakes p 1 ace when a learner unde rs tands input t h at c o ntain s gramma t ic al f o rms t h at a re at i+1 ( a re a 1 ittle more advanced than thec u r r e nt st e advanced than theerla n guag e ).L2 acquisition depends on comprehensible input.（可理解的語言輸入）Cur re nt state: in

39、ext advanc i ng state： i+12. Micha e l Longsin t eracti o n hypothesis （互動假說）Micha el Longs in t era c tion hypothesi s also emphasi ze s the impo r t a nce of com p rehensibl e i n put but cla i m s t h at it is mos t effective when it i s modified through the negotiatio n of me a n in g（意 義協(xié)商）3. E

40、 v e l yn Hatch: S ca f f ol dingEvelyn Ha t ch emp has i z e s the c o lla b o ra tive e n deavo r s of the lear n ers and t hei r inte rlocut or s i n constr u ct i n g dis c ou r se an d s uggests that s yntactic struct ures can grow out of the process o f b uil ding the di scourse4. Scaffolding

41、（支架學(xué)習(xí)法）L ea rn er s use the dis course to h elp the m pro duce utterances tha t they wo uld not be able t o pro duc e on th eir own .Mar k：Come h ere .Homer: N o come here.5.3 T h e ro le of o u tput i n L2 acquisit i o nKrashen：Speaking is the result of acquisi tion not its cause. Theonl y way l e

42、arners can learn from t he i r output is by trea t in g i t a s auto -i nput .Mer rill Swai n: Compre hensi ble output also pl ay s a par t i n L 2 acq ui si tion.1 ） To serve a consciousness-rai sing function by hel ping learners to not ic e gaps in their i nt erla nguages.2） To t es t h ypo theses

43、.3) T3) To ide nt ify prob lems wit h they can b e put right.it an d dis c ussin g ways in whi c hChapt e r 6 Psychol i ng u istic as pec ts of inte r languag e61 LITransferN e g a ti v e tra ns ferPo si t iv e t r ansferAvoi danceContr as tive a n alysisSpeech ac t sI n t erl a ng a ge d ev elo p m

44、ent cannot fo 1 l o w a rest r uc t u ri ng co n tinuum6.2The role of consciou snes s in L2 a cquisiti o nStephen KrashenStephen KrashencontroversialDeveloped subconsciously Developed subconsciously Uirojg卜 ccmprehending irpjl vrhilm communicating.Develcped consciously th noug h deliberale study of

45、the L2.Qp財(cái)即Qp財(cái)即sn1曲削；thf restttt of flfl 咖粧 I prflcm 顯性知識：二號學(xué)習(xí)老能意識到、 能說出親的浴言規(guī)型知識1.The two Knoviedge1 sysidm 8 srtirelty ir dependent of orb a nowetandi tbst l&aLrn&cTkno edge can never be cortverted intoacquired1 knolecge.Imptldf和陌”個(gè)餌那 臟rvsaif gf m autamatic pr&eess 隱咗知識；二君學(xué)習(xí)者能冃國表達(dá) 兀來的宣覺知識Richard Sc

46、hmidtConsciousness-Contrasts withContrasts withIntentionality: refer to whether a learner makes a conscious and deliberate decision to learn some L2 knowledge.Incidental learning伴隨性學(xué)習(xí): takes place when learners pick up L2 knowledge through exposure.No matter whether learning is intentional or incide

47、ntal, it involves conscious attention to features in the inputS ch mi d t a rgues th at learning c an n ot take place wit hout what he ca lls noti c ing.I mplic i t kn o wle d ge: th e res ult of an automatic proce s s隱性知識:二語學(xué)習(xí)者能用但表達(dá)不出來的直覺知識Expli ci t knowledg e: the result of an effor t ful process

48、顯性知識:二語學(xué)習(xí)者能意識到、能說出來的語言規(guī)則知識The ways that explicit knowledge may aids learnes in development implicit knowledgeright stage1.Interface, explicit knowledgeimplicit knowledgeconvert into2. Facilitate the process by which learners attend to features in the input3* Intake” acquisitionnotice the gapIt is pe

49、r h aps s el f -evid ent that all la nguag e u s er s, i nc 1 uding L2 learners, know rules that guide their performance wit hout any awareness of what the rules consist of. They can alway s refle c t o n th i s imp 1 icit kno wledge 隱性知識， th us maki ng it expli c it.It is a lso cl e ar that L2 lear

50、ne r s may have kno wl edge abou t theL 2 （i e . explic i t k nowl e dge 顯性知識）bu t be una b le t o useth isknowledge in perf or mance without conscious atte n tio n .63 Pr o ce s sing operations0 p e rat i ng pr i ncip 1 e sThe stu d y of the L1 acquisit i on of many di ffere nt 丨 a nguages ha s led

51、 to the ide nt ificati o n o f a number of general strategies which c hi1 dren use to ex t ract and segme nt ling ui st i c inform a tion from the lan g uage they hear.Examp le s: avoid interrupt i onrearr a ngement of li ng ui s tic unitsa void e xc e p t i o nsMu 1 tidimensional modelThis the or y

52、 sought to accou nt for both wh y learners acquire the gra mmar of a language in a defin i te o rde r and also why s o me1e arn e r s on ly develop very si mple i nterl a n g uage gramm a r s .I t distingui s h e s a dev elopmenta 1 and a vari a ti o n a l a x is.P ro c e s sing co n st ra i ntsProc

53、essing constraintsCanonical order strategy典型順序笑晤This prevents them from interrupting the basic subjectverb-object word order. Initializatio n/finalization strategy首位 位賞路This enables learto move elements at the end of a structure to the beginning and vive versa.Subordinate clause strategy從扈句鐸珞This pe

54、rmits movement of elements within main clauses but blocks them in subordinate clauses. Movement along the HBfiational axis isdetermined by socio-psychological factors.Learners who want to integrate into the target-A language community progress rapidly along this axis.Learnes who want to maintain the

55、ir own separate identities progress more slowly and sometimes not at all.6 .4 Communi c atio n strat e g i esAvoid p r o b l e mat i c itemsMy brother made me to give him some money.Borrow a word from L1Use another t arge t-Ian g uag e word t hat is appro x im a te in mean i n gParaphrase the meanin

56、g of wordConstru c t an enti rely new wordPsy c h o li ng uist ic models t o account for t he u s e of communi c ation str a tegie sFor example: Claus Faerch and Gabriele Kasper p r opo se d a modelof speech pr oduct ion.The model of speech productionAplanning phaseAn execution phaseCoimnunication T

57、he model of speech productionAplanning phaseAn execution phaseCoimnunication strategies are seen as part of the planning phase.Abandon and 血veI叩:reduction strategyMaintain: achievement strategy6.5 Two types of com p utat i onal modelSe rial processing:串行處理Information i s p ro cesse d i n a s eri e s

58、 of se q ue n t i al s t eps and res u Its i n the r epre s ent at io n of wha t has been lea rne d as s ome ki nd of rule or st rategyPar alle l dist r ibut ed proce ssing:并行處理Lea rn er s wi th the a b ili ty to p erform a numbe r of m e nt a l tasks at th e same timeChapter 7 linguistic aspects o

59、f i nte rl a nguage7. lTypological universals: r el ativ e clause當(dāng)代類型學(xué)是從微觀的視角研究語言各個(gè)層面的類型特征與共性，通過對大量語言的觀察， 統(tǒng)計(jì)和對比,從中發(fā)現(xiàn)語言的普遍規(guī)律和形成這些規(guī)律的普遍性制約因素,并探究其形成動因, 以解釋和預(yù)測語言可能具有的變化模式，從而揭示語言發(fā)展變化的本質(zhì)。當(dāng)代類型學(xué)理論中 的“標(biāo)記性”，“蘊(yùn)含共性”和“語法層級”對二語習(xí)得研究產(chǎn)生了巨大的影響，開啟了基 于類型學(xué)理論的二語習(xí)得研究路徑。7.2Unive r sal g r ammarChoms k y argu es t hat langu

60、a g e is governed by a set of hig h ly abst r ac t princ i p l e s t ha t pr ovide par a mete r s which are given p articular s e tt i ngs in d i fferent language.7.3LearnabilityCh oms k y h a s cla i med t h at children learning t he ir LI must rely o n innate knowle d g e o f la ngua g e bee a use