AlthoughBritishauthorsremainedfarmorepopularthanAustralianwriters,colonialcontributionstotheartskeptpacewiththeincreasingeconomicandsocialdevelopmentofthesixcolonies.Twowriters,CatherineHelenSpence,authorofClaraMorison(1854),andMarcusClarke,authorofFortheTermofHisNaturalLife(1874),produceddistinctivenovelsthatdealtwithlocalthemes.Australiaheldaspecialfascinationfor19thcenturyscientists,andlargenumbersofbotanists,zoologists,anthropologists,andgeologistsfoundamplematerialthereforresearch.Bythe1860s,Australianshadalsocompletedtheinitialexplorationoftheinterior,includingthedesertsintheNorthernTerritory.C8.MovementTowardFederationFederationoftheAustraliancoloniescamelateandwithoutthedisplayofnationalismthatcharacterizedsimilarmovementselsewhere.Theideaofunificationappearedasearlyas1847inproposalsbyEarlGrey,Britain'scolonialsecretary.Inthe1850sJohnDunmoreLang,aScottishPresbyterianclericinNewSouthWales,formedtheAustralianLeaguetocampaignforaunitedAustralia.Conferencesamongcolonialgovernmentsinthe1860salsoconsideredclosercooperationandunification.WiththeformationoftheDominionofCanadain1867,BritishofficialsbegantoexpectasimilareffortamongAustralians.Noplan,however,receivedseriousattention,duetotheintenserivalriesamongcolonialsocieties.Inthe1880stheprospectofEuropean-asdistinctfromBritish-colonizationofthePacifictriggeredfearsofAustralia'slackofdefense.Queensland,anticipatingGermanmoves,claimedPapuaonNewGuineain1883but,unabletosupportthisclaim,hadtourgeBritaintoruletheterritoryandtoclaimotherislands.ConcernedthattheymightnotbeabletodirectBritishpolicyintheirinterestsandawareoftheemergenceofnewpowersinEurope,theAustraliancoloniescreatedaFederalCouncilin1885,buttherefusalofNewSouthWalestoparticipatedoomedthiseffortatunification.Otherdevelopmentsduringthe1880s,however,servedtokeeptheideaofunificationalive.DebateovertheWhiteAustraliapolicydemonstratedtheneedforuniformimmigrationrules.AsmoreAustralianworkersunionized,tradeunionsbecamemorecentralized,suggestingtheattractivenessofasingleeconomicandpoliticalsystem.Unstableeconomicconditionsandoutrightdepressionby1892contributedtothedevelopmentoflaborpartiesthatcoulddefendworkerinterests.Itwasevidenttothelaboritesthatunificationwouldpermitthestandardizationoflaborlaws.NewSouthWalesbeganthemovementtoreplacetheFederalCouncilin1889,whenitspremier,HenryParkes,announcedthatthecolonywouldsupportanewformoffederalism.AconferenceinSydneyin1891laidthebasisforaconstitutionalconvention,whichdidnot,however,meetuntil1897to1898.Furtherdisputesfollowed,buteventuallyallsixcoloniesapproved.TheCommonwealthofAustraliawasaccordinglyapprovedbytheBritishParliamentin1900andbecamearealityonJanuary1,1901.ThefederalconstitutionreflectedbothBritishandAmericanpractices-thatis,parliamentarygovernment,withcabinetsresponsibletoabicamerallegislature,wasestablished,butonlyspecificallydelegatedpowersweregiventothegovernment.ThenewHouseofRepresentatives,liketheBritishHouseofCommons,wasbasedonpopularrepresentation,butthenewSenate,likeitsAmericancounterpart,preservedtherepresentationofthecolonies,whichnowbecamestates.AsneitherSydneynorMelbournewasanacceptablefederalcapital,in1911theAustralianCapitalTerritorywasestablishedforanewcapital,Canberra-againbasedontheWashington,D.C.,model.D.TheCommonwealthCentraltothehistoryofAustraliainthe20thcenturyhasbeenthedevelopmentofbothanationalgovernmentandanationalculture.Commonwealthgovernments,ledbysucharchitectsoffederationasAlfredDeakin,quicklyestablishedaprotectivetarifftofosterinternaldevelopment,designedproceduresforsettingminimumwagesinindustry,andpreservedthewhiteimmigrationpolicy.Nevertheless,Australianstendedtoretaintheiroldcolonialidentities,andthepoliticalpartiesatthenationalleveltendedtobelooselydefined.D1.IdentityForgedbyWarWorldWarI(1914-1918),muchmorethanfederationitself,beganthetransformationofAustralianlifefromthatofsixcoloniestoaunitedstateawareofitsnewidentity.Respondingtothealliedcallfortroops,Australiasentmorethan330,000volunteers,whotookpartinsomeofthebloodiestbattles.Sufferingacasualtyratehigherthanthatofmanyotherparticipants,Australiabecameincreasinglyconsciousofitscontributiontothewareffort.AtGallipoli(nowGelibolu),anAustralianandNewZealandArmyCorps(Anzac)triedinvaintolaunchadriveontheTurkishforcesintheDardanelles.Thedateofthefatefullanding,April25,1915,becameequatedwithAustralia'scomingofage,andasAnzacDayithasremainedthecountry'smostsignificantdayofpublichomage.In1915WilliamM.("Billy")HughesbecameprimeministerandleaderoftheLaborParty.RepresentingAustraliaatcouncilsinLondon,HughespersonifiedAustralianenergies.Whenhefailedtocarrytheelectorateintwoattemptstosupplementvolunteerswithconscriptedmen,HughesremainedinpowerbyformingtheNationalistParty,muchtotheannoyanceofhisLaborcolleagues.HeattendedtheParisPeaceConferencein1919,acquiringGermanNewGuineaasamandatedterritoryandestablishingAustralia'srighttoentertheLeagueofNations.Thepowersdesignatedtothefederalgovernmentintheconstitutionprovedsufficienttoallowastrongcentralgovernment.D2.InterwarYearsAfteraninternalbacklashwithintheNationalistPartyforcedtheretirementofHughesin1923,StanleyM.Brucebecameprimeminister.TheCountryParty,foundedin1920asapatriotic,conservativemovementtoprotecttheinterestsoffarmersandgraziers,joinedtheNationalistcoalition,althoughitkeptitsownidentity.ThechiefopponentofthecoalitionwasLabor,whichhadtoredefineitssocialpolicies.Tomaintainwartimelevelsofproductionandexpansionthegovernmentsoughttobuildupthebasicindustries,butthedepressionof1929cutdeeplyintothehealthoftheAustralianeconomy,increasingpublicandprivatedebtsatatimeofmassiveunemployment.Recoveryfromthedepression,ledfrom1929toearly1932byJamesH.ScullinandtheLaborParty,wasextremelyuneven.Deflationaryeconomicpolicycontributedtoeconomiceffectsthatwerefarmoreharshthanthosefeltelsewhereintheworld.DisagreementongovernmentpolicybrokeLaboragainin1931,andfortherestofthe1930stheUnitedAustraliaParty,composedofformerNationalistsanddisenchantedLaborites,heldthereinsofpower.ThepartywasledbyJosephAlyosusLyons.Fromitsfirstassumptionofresponsibilityinforeignaffairs,AustraliahadbeenguidedbyitsculturalandpoliticaltieswithBritain.EmphasiswasthereforeplacedonfollowingBritain'sleadershipinsolvingtheproblemsofthedepression.ChiefamongthesewasanattempttoredirectmoretradebetweenBritainandthedominions.Asearlyasthe1920s,however,JapanandtheUnitedStateswereamongAustralia'sbestcustomersforitswoolcrop.Againstitsowninterests,butmotivatedinpartbyfear,AustraliasoughttoreestablishBritishtradeattheexpenseofitsrelationswithJapan.IntheLeagueofNationsandwithintheCommonwealthofNations,AustraliangovernmentsalsotendedtosupportappeasementandotherpoliciesinanefforttopreventwarwiththeFascistpowers.D3.WorldWarIIhenwarcameagaininEuropein1939,AustraliadispatcheditssmallarmedforcestoassistinBritain'sdefense.AfterthePacificwarbetweenJapanandtheUnitedStatesbrokeoutin1941andBritainwasunabletoprovidesufficientsupportforAustralia'sdefense,thenewLaborgovernmentofJohnCurtinsoughtalliancewiththeUnitedStates.UntiltheliberationofthePhilippines,DouglasMacArthurandhisstaffusedAustraliafortheirbaseofoperations.AlthoughcasualtieswerelighterthaninWorldWarI,AustraliansweremorepsychologicallyaffectedbecauseoftheirfearsofaJapaneseinvasion.AgainAustralianindustrywastransformedbytheneedsofwar.Theeconomywasredirectedtowardmanufacturing,andheavyindustriesringedthecapitalcities.Postwardevelopmentbuiltfurtheronthefoundationsestablishedduringthewar.PrimeMinisterCurtindiedin1945,butthenewLaborgovernmentunderJosephB.ChifleystrengthenedAustralia'srelationshipwiththeUnitedStatesintheANZUSpactformutualassistance(withNewZealandasathirdpartner).AsachartermemberoftheUnitedNations,Au